Paper 1: Peacemaking and Peacekeeping 1919 –
1935 – Review
Paper 1 Tips:
Paper 1 is formulaic – questions always
follow the same format. 1 hour (+5 mins reading time), 4 questions – DON’T RUN
OUT OF TIME, DON’T OVERTHINK THINGS
Question 1 – Source interpretation -
Maximum 7 minutes!
a) “What, according to Source X…?” –
Worth [3 marks] – just pull out information from the source – no explanation,
just fact
b) “What is the message conveyed by
Source Y? [2 marks] – pull out key points from your interpretations, back up
with information from the source.
Question 2 – Compare and Contrast
Sources – Maximum 10 minutes!
Two structures:
“Compare and contrast the views
expressed in X with those in Y” – Don’t describe the view of the sources.
Simple – 2 paragraphs, one comparing (similarities) and one contrasting
(differences) – ALWAYS BACK UP WITH INFORMATION FROM THE SOURCES.
“To what extent do X and Y support the
views expressed in Z?” – briefly summarize the views expressed in Z and then do
1 paragraph comparing and contrasting X with them, then another paragraph
comparing and contrasting Y with them. [6 marks]
Question 3 – Source Evaluation –
Maximum 15 minutes
“With reference to their origin and
purpose, assess the value and limitations of Source A and Source B for
historians studying…”
Do 1 paragraph about one source, then 1
paragraph about the other – DO NOT COMPARE/CONTRAST.
Remember Origin and Purpose – must
reference the two when analyzing the sources’ values and limitations – e.g.
Because this source is a speech by a government official… , Because the source
aims to persuade, it may…
[6 marks]
Question 4 – Essay Question – 20
minutes
“Using the sources and your own
knowledge, analyze...”
Structure your answer as a mini essay –
remember to reference all of the sources, naming them – In source A…. Source B
states that… etc.
You must include a balance of your own
knowledge about the issue being discussed as well – this knowledge will come in
the form of the revision that you have done for Paper One using the following
notes. Make sure that you reach a conclusion and have an argument, and, for
full marks, refer or acknowledge the other side of the argument. [8 marks]
Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points, 8th
January 1918
· Woodrow Wilson (US President) outlined
his idealistic aims for the Treaty of Versailles in a speech to the US
government – his ideas for worldwide peace, to “make the world safe for
democracy”
· Wilson wanted a “just and secure peace”
and not merely “a new balance of power”
· Formed the basis of the peace that came
out of the Treaty of Versailles
· Included disarmament, freedom of
navigation of the seas (which Britain didn’t like), no secret treaties,
autonomy for Austria Hungary, Alsace Lorraine returned to France, no economic
barriers, self determination, adjustment of colonial claims – basically, by
eliminating all of the causes of WW1, he hoped to prevent another war.
· Flaws: it would be impossible to
enforce some of the terms, such as splitting up the Habsburg Empire. Economic
hardships following the war meant that countries would not be willing to
abandon tariffs. Clemenceau found the terms too unrealistic (although he was
getting A-L back). Foreign leaders were skeptical as to whether they could be
applied to the ‘real world’.
· Wilson referred to his vision of the
post war settlement as “peace without victory” – his terms, such as disarmament,
became the basis of the covenant of the League of Nations.
· Lenin – “landmark of enlightenment in
international relations”
· Fourteen Points still stand as the most powerful
expression of the idealist strain in American diplomacy.
· Robert Wohl – “Wilson made too many
promises, and had to negotiate a peace settlement with leaders who were intent
on preventing German hegemony, and not world peace”
· Ruth Henig: “the 14 points appeared to
promise some protection against punitive French and British demands”
Article 231 (of the T.O.V) – June 1919
· More commonly known as the War Guilt
Clause, or Kriegsschuldfrage here in Germany
· Stated that “Germany accepts the
responsibility of her and her allies for causing all of the loss and damage” to
the victorious powers, to whom “war was imposed on… by the aggression of
Germany and her allies” – Forced Germany to take the blame for the outbreak of
WW1, and was used to justify the extortionate £6.6 billion reparations sum.
Ironic because Lloyd George had stated previously that WW1 was nobody’s fault,
and that it was “stumbled into”
· Created hostilities in Germany – very
controversial, Germans wanted revenge. Was used to placate the British and
French public, with cries of ‘hang the Kaiser’ and Eric Geddes (first lord of
admiralty) – “squeeze the German lemon until the pips squeak!”
· Perceived in Germany as inaccurate, led
to the TOV being branded as a ‘diktat’
· If Germany didn’t agree to it, war
would reconvene – they had no other choice.
· War cannot be blamed on one person, can
it?
· “Germany’s death sentence” – historians
such as Martin Gilbert argue that this led to the rise of Nazism in Germany, a
claim that Margaret Macmillan brands “erroneous”.
· Led to anger within the Germans –
newspaper headings such as “we will never stop until we get back what we
deserve.. treaty is only a scrap of paper – we will seek revenge, it is full of
injustices, brutalities and exploitations”
· Count Brockdorff Rantzau – “Those who
sign this treaty will sign the death sentence of a million Germans… may the
hand that sign this treaty wither”
· Dylan Thomas – “The hand that signed
the paper felled a city, and locusts came”
Treaty of Versailles, 28th
June 1919
· Peace Treaty between the victorious
powers – Britain, France, Italy and USA dictated to Germany
· 440 clauses – very extensive, too much
so?
· Signed in Hall of Mirrors in Palace of
Versailles where the proclamation of the German Union was signed in 1871 after
the Franco-Prussian War, to rub it in France’s face – now it was Germany’s turn
to be humiliated – it was also the anniversary of the assassination of the
Archduke of Franz Ferdinand in 1914, which was the catalyst of WW1. Rushed
into? Wilson and Lloyd George openly stated that they hadn’t read all the
clauses, for that would take a “lifetime”
· TRAWL – Territories (Germany lost 13%
of territories, AL went back to France), Reparations (£6.6 billion – weren’t
actually specified until the London Conference in 1930 – Germany felt like she
was signing a ‘blank cheque’ – again ironic, it is what they offered AH after
the assassination), Army (disarmed to 100,000 men and 6 battleships – Germans
sunk most of their fleet because they didn’t want the British to benefit from
it), War Guilt clause (Article 231, see above), League of Nations (set up from
Wilson’s 14 points, again see above)
· Humiliated Germany – seen as a Diktat.
Also lost 12% of population.
· Ruth Henig – “TOV wasn’t excessively
harsh on Germany”
· Lenin – “This is no peace, but terms
dictated to a defenseless victim by armed robbers”
· Lloyd George knew that “Germany could
not pay anything like the indemnity which the British and French demanded”
· Harold Nicolson – “We left the
conference conscious that the treaty imposed upon out enemy was neither just
nor wise”
· German MP – “shameless blow in the face
of common sense”
· Lloyd George – “I didn’t do too bad
considering I was sat between Jesus (Wilson) and Napoleon (Clemenceau)”
· Clemenceau – “there are 20 million
Germans too many”
· Germany didn’t pay off the reparations
until 2010
· Lloyd George – “we want to protect the
future against a repetition of the horrors of war”
· Terms weren’t really stuck to by Hitler
– he found it a godsend for propaganda. Some argue that appeasement found its
roots in 1919 through the guilty consciences created at Versailles.
Treaty of Trianon, 4th June 1920
· Between B&F and Hungary (who
were undergoing a communist takeover). Hungary had been a peaceful multi ethnic
state for over 1000 years until the treaty. Branded “The greatest tragedy to
have befallen Hungary”
· Obliged to pay reparations but went
bankrupt before the reparations were agreed
· Lost ¾ of its territory, and more than
60% of its population – population reduced from 21 million to 7.5 million, many
Magyar speakers now part of neighbouring countries
· Two of the three newly created countries carved
out of Hungarian territory no longer exist. (Slovakia became part of Czech
Republic and Yugoslavia suffered from civil war and ethnic cleansing) –may
never have happened if the treaty hadn’t taken place.
· Throughout the 1920s and 30s, the Hungarian F.P
was dominated by a desire to revise the Treaty and reunite Magyar speaking
lands – in pursuit of this, she signed a treaty with Mussolini’s Italy in 1927
· Wilson: “The proposal to dismember Hungary is absurd”
Winston Churchill: “Ancient poets and theologians could not imagine the
suffering that Trianon brought to the innocent”
· Effects of treaty are still strongly
felt today
· Treaty restricted Hungary economically
and militarily, causing aggression
· Caused the formation of the Little
Entente (Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Romania) who feared that Hungary might
go to war in order to reclaim the territories that Trianon took away and gave
to the members of the little entente.
· The new Hungary was a landlocked state
with no access to the Mediterranean Sea, which weakened economy, and could have
been the reason for her later association with Nazi Germany
· Army reduced to 35,000 men with no more
conscription, air force was banned, and, as a land locked nation, she was not
allowed a navy.
Treaty of Sevres, 10th August
1920
· Signed between B&F and the
Ottoman Empire (Turkey)
· Carved up as the ‘sick man of Europe’ –
took 15 months to draft.
· Abolished the Ottoman Empire, which
left lots of small party states becoming mandates. Britain took control of Iraq
and Palestine whilst France took control of Syria and Lebanon – a lot of the
problems going on with the Syrian conflict today can be traced back to this
treaty
· Countries such as Armenia were
recognized as independent states.
· Dardanelles straits were opened up and
made an international waterway with Turkey having no control over it
· Army limited to 50,000 men. Navy
limited to 13 boats and an air force was forbidden.
· Financial control handed over to the
allies – control of banks, imports and exports, loans and the tax system
· Lost all rights to Sudan and Libya and
had to recognize French Morocco, British Egypt and Cyprus
· Eastern Thrace, Aegan Islands and
Dodecanese Islands went to Italy.
· Terms were overthrown as the result of the
revival of a Turkish nationalist movement – new treaty of Lausanne was drawn up
in 1923 in which Greece returned Eastern Thrace and 2 Aegan Islands to Turkey,
in which they also gained the right to close the straits to enemy warships in
the time of war. The supervision of finances was also ended.
Treaty of St Germain, 10th
September 1919
· Between B&F and Austria
· Dissolved the Austro-Hungarian Empire –
Austria was to be treated as a new state, and Hungary had their separate treaty
(Trianon)
· Army limited to 30,000 men
· Reparations were declared to start in
1921 and last for 30 years but they were never enforced so never paid. Payments
in animals to Italia, Romania and Serbia were, however, set out (milk cows,
bulls, sheep, horses)
· Empire reduced from 30 million to 6
million, now land locked
· Lost industrial areas
· Forced to accept some War Guilt just
like Germany did
· Unification (Anschluss) with Germany
was forbidden
· Lost land to Czechoslovakia, Poland,
Italy, Romania and Yugoslavia
· Austro-Hungarian navy was split up and
distributed between the allies
· The Austria created by the treaty was financially
and militarily weak and therefore a chronic force of instability in Europe
between the two World Wars.
Treaty of Neuilly, 27th
November 1919
· Between the allies and Bulgaria
· Reparations of £90 million to be paid,
which they actually did pay because 75% of the reparations were later remitted
· Western Thrace handed over to ‘Big
Three’ and eventually to Greece – this lost Bulgaria’s Aegan coastline and
access to the seas, so weakened her
· Army limited to 20,000 men
· When World War Two broke out, Bulgaria sided
with Nazi Germany and reclaimed all the land taken from her by the Treaty of
Neuilly.
· Land also given to Romania and Yugoslavia
The Little Entente, 1921
· Protective military and political
alliance between Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia and Romania (+France and Poland),
who had profited from the dissection of Hungary in the Treaty of Trianon (June
1920) but realized their vulnerability and feared that Hungary might try and
seek revenge to regain their territories. Also result of UK and US betrayal –
isolationist? Secured France and the Eastern Powers against an attack from
Germany
· France backed the little entente with
its alliance with Czechoslovakia – this would, in turn, protect them from
Germany and reinforce encirclement.
· Left Britain confused – France had gone
against the covenant of the LON by forming a secret alliance. Distrust against
collective security.
· The alliance was destroyed when the
1938 Munich Pact delivered the Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) to Germany, and
land in Slovakia and Ruthenia to Hungary, who were very much part of the Nazi
Camp.
The Treaty of Rapallo, 16th
April 1922
· Between USSR and Germany – both had
been excluded from the League of Nations, formed the basis of Russo-German
friendship. Signed in Rapallo, Italy during the Genoa Conference . Negotiated
by Germany’s Walther Rathenau and USSR’s G Chicherin. Dealt with outstanding
questions and tension after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which removed USSR from
the war in 1918, in which Germany were very harsh towards Russia.
· Agreed to cancel territorial claims
against each other and to co-operate economically. Treaty strengthened military
and economic ties with each other. Agreed to "co-operate in a spirit of
mutual goodwill in meeting the economic needs of both countries".
· Allowed German factories producing
military goods (which was banned by TOV) to be produced in Russia – because it
wasn’t in Germany it evaded the TOV terms. Allowed Germany to make weaponry and
train soldiers (rearming – breaking TOV), whilst allowing Russia to see and use
Western Technology and engineering techniques (which Germany are still infamous
for), which they had been deprived of since the 1917 Revolution – these terms
were, however secret.
· First agreement concluded by Germany as
an independent agent after WW1, and angered the allies.
· Intended to form as an anti-Versailles axis
against the West, since both groups lost a considerable amount of territory and
political power under the treaty. In the West, it was viewed with alarm as
strengthening the international position of both governments. Many conservative
and far-right elements with the Weimar Republic were also alarmed by the
government's decision to negotiate and maintain good relations with a communist
state.
· Reaffirmed in the 1926 Treaty of Berlin
and the 1939 Nazi-Soviet Pact. Also agreed to co-operate against Poland because
both Germany and the USSR had lost land to Poland – wanted to gain it back,
which was the basis of the Nazi Soviet Pact.
Washington Conference, 12th
November 1921 – 6th February 1922
· Convened by Charles Hughes, the
Secretary of State of the USA to consider naval armaments – it was an agreement
outside of the LON and it actually worked, whilst the agreements in the LON
were mostly unsuccessful because of the absence of the USA.
· US government were also seeking to
reduce naval expenditure, and wanted to avoid a new naval race in the Pacific.
· Proposed naval disarmament and the end
of Britain’s naval domination – another step to prevent the possibility of
future war.
· Resulted in two treaties: the 4 power
and 9 power treaties.
· Four Power Treaty (Dec 13th
1921) – USA, Britain, France and Japan agreed to recognize each others
possessions in the Pacific and in an event where there rights were threatened,
they would consult each other rather than fight. Replaced the Anglo Japanese
Treaty of 1902. Japan seen as a rising military threat by USA, so naval ratio
dampened their worries. Would consult each other if there was any “Pacific
Question”.
· Five Power Treaty – USA, Britain,
Japan, France and Italy (5:5:3:1.75:1.75 naval ratio set up, No battleships or
cruisers to be built for 10 years – ‘building holiday’, Ships are to be
destroyed until ratio is reached)
· Nine Power Treaty – USA, Britain,
France, Japan, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Portugal and China. Led to the
‘Open Door Policy’ being reinforced – Agreed to respect Chinese territorial
integrity and independence. Agreed to discuss problems of common interest. Gave
all nations to do business with China on equal terms. Guaranteed Financial
assistance to China, and the Shantung Penninsula was returned by Japan. China
had been unstable in the early 1920s after death of President Yuan Shi-kai in
1916 and rival generals in China were competing for power.
· Results: Constituted a positive step
towards preventing a naval arms race, signaled end of Britain’s naval
domination as they accepted parity with the USA. Progress in terms of arms
limitations and regional co-operation.
· Problems: Did not lay down any
mechanism for enforcement in the event of a country breaching their terms,
failed to prevent Japanese aggression from 1931 onwards. USSR not invited, even
though they were potentially a major force in the Pacific.
· Hughes: “we have gone further in the
direction of securing an enduring peace than by anything that has yet been
done”
Corfu Incident, 1923
· On 27th August 1923, four
Italian ambassadors (Including General Tellino) were assassinated on Greek soil
after being sent there by the LON to survey a border dispute between Greece and
Albania.
· Mussolini demanded an apology and 50
million lire in compensation from the Greek government. Greece refused and
appealed to the LON (Mussolini was a member of the council). The LON condemned
Mussolini (it was all they could do) and refused to make Greece pay
compensation.
· In response, as soon as the Greeks had
rejected Italy’s demands, Mussolini invaded Corfu (31st August).
· The LON then tried to push Greece into
apologizing and, if a commission of enquiry found evidence to support Italy’s
claims that the assassins were Greek, pay the compensation. Under pressure from
Britain, Mussolini agreed on the 27th September to withdraw his
forces, and in exchange received the 50 million lire compensation from Greece.
· Results: the credibility of the LON
went down because the aggressor won – they had no force to stop Mussolini.
Mussolini had dipped his feet into the water – he knew what he could get away
with, so went on to invade Abyssinia in 1935, during which again the League did
nothing. Appeasement, AJP Taylor “Hitler Watched” – one of the early failures
of the LON.
· Also boosted Mussolini’s image – the
Italian press presented it as a ‘triumphant’ return of Italy to the
international scene as a nation that got its way
Ruhr Crisis, 1923 - 1925
· Germany, Belgium and France. France
didn’t believe that the Rapallo treaty contained no secret agreements, and took
a harder line on Germany.
· In Germany in the 1920s, economic
activity decreased, unemployment increased and productivity fell. Germany
missed an installment of her reparations payments in 1922 (which were decided
at £6.6 billion, Germany to pay 2 billion gold marks per year after the
decision at the Reparations Committee of 1921), so France and Belgium invaded
the coal rich region and took raw materials as a form of compensation. Their
aim was to force Germany into paying the installments, but in the mean time,
coal and timber were seized.
· In retaliation, the Germans put up
passive resistance and refused to comply with orders. They also destroyed the
goods that the French had intended to ship over to France. This further
postponed the payments, led to violent conflict, and, eventually inflation –
the German government printed more money to support the workers, and this
resulted in hyperinflation, which devalued German currency (1 loaf of bread – 2
million marks)
· Passive resistance eventually called
off by Stresemann, who obliged to terms of the TOV and solved the financial
problem with the Dawes Plan, which stabilized the currency and enabled Germany
to start reparations payments again.
Dawes Plan, April 1924
· Charles Dawes’ USA’s attempt to solve
the reparations problem – implemented to ensure recovery and solve the
hyperinflation in Germany – Dawes won a Nobel Prize in 1925 and his innovation
has been branded a “milestone” in history.
· New currency – the Reichsmark.
· German banks were whittled down, the
Reichsbank was reorganized.
· Loan of 800 million marks to Germany
intended to restabilise currency.
· In the terms, it stipulated the
evacuation of the Ruhr, and that reparations payments should start at 1 billion
marks per year (£50 million), increasing to 2.5 billion after 5 years (£125
million)
· Brought respite from reparations and
brought Germany back to her feet, allowing for recovery during the ‘Golden
Years’ – again, it was outside of the LON, showing just how influential the USA
were, and how detrimental their absence from the LON was. It did, however, make
Germany over-reliant on foreign financial aid, and, as the US developed
economic problems, Germany suffered as an onset. Despite US isolationist
policy, they could not turn their back on European economic affairs. Allowed
Germany to repay B&F, who could then repay their war loans back to the
US – everyone benefited. 22.9 billion marks were paid in reparations during
this period.
Locarno Treaties, 6th – 15th
October 1925
· Drawn up at Locarno, Switzerland and
signed in London.
· Marked a breakthrough in German
relations with Britain and France. Germany accepted her borders with Belgium
and France, and agreed to arbitration in any future border quarrels with Poland
and Czechoslovakia.
· Germany, France and Belgium signed
mutual guarantees – this time, everyone had to make the promise – action would
be taken if either side broke the term – Germany no longer treated
differently.
· This was a step towards
Franco-German reconciliation and it meant that Germany could start to grow
economically again without being a threat to Western Europe. It also meant that France and Britain could
reconcile over the differences that drove these two apart (how to deal with
Germany)
· Germany’s eastern borders were less
secure – left room for expansion in the east.
· Germany were treated as equals again
after accepting border terms of the TOV and were allowed to join the LON
· Talks and conference took place outside
of the LON – shows that the terms of the TOV weren’t binding unless supported
by another treaty outside of the league.
· Seen as the ‘climax of fulfillment’ and
a step towards world peace – resulted in excitement and optimism. Supervision
of German disarmament was stopped – there was a level of trust, and by 1930
Germany was an independent state again.
· Was ripped up by Adolf Hitler
Kellogg-Briand Pact, 27th
August 1928
· Signed on August 27th 1928
between Germany, France, the USA and 12 other nations (Britain, Belgium,
Poland, Australia) and 47 other nations later followed suit, joining together
to renounce the use of aggression as a means of solving disputes. Prohibited
the use of war as an “instrument of national policy”. Was approved
overwhelmingly in the senate with an 85-1 vote.
· Signed in Paris, so sometimes called
the Pact of Paris
· Aimed to stop militarism from rising
and causing another world war.
· Again, this was outside of the LON –
showed just how powerless they were.
· Named after authors – US
Secretary of State Frank B Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand
· Problems: there were no provisions for
any kind of sanctions if the terms of the treaty were broken. Also, there was
no definition of the “aggressive war” that the Pact was renouncing – countries
could interpret it as they liked. Some just see it as “a statement of good
intentions” as when Germany, Japan and Italy broke the terms in the 1930s,
nothing could be done to stop them – the pact simply stated that parties failing to
abide by this promise "should be denied the benefits furnished by this
treaty"
· An example of collective security – the
best way to prevent conflict was if all nations acted collectively to renounce
individual use of force.
· A similar pact, the Litvinov Pact, was
signed in Eastern Europe in 1929. Again, it renounced war but had flaws.
· Served as the legal basis for the
creation of the notion of ‘crime against peace’ (war in violation of
international treaties) which was used to punish the people guilty for starting
WW2 in the Nuremburg Tribunal.
The Young Plan, 1929
· Commissioned by Owen D Young, a
contribution to the continuing peace, helped Weimar Germany significantly.
· Reduced the pressure on Germany to pay
a large amount of reparations payments, because Germany could still not fulfill
her financial requirements even after the Dawes Plan – they were too demanding.
· Reduced German reparations to 121
billion marks, payable over 59 years (660 million marks paid per year, the
remainder of the payment could be postponed for up to 2 years, which would
enable Germany to overcome any temporary economic problems/times of economic
hardship)
· As a result of German acceptance, the
Allies agreed to evacuate the Rhineland by June 1930.
· Germany were paying back less than they
had been under the Dawes Plan, which relieved the strain on her economy and
allowed for further financial recovery.
· Unfortunately, between the presentation
of the plan and its formal adoption, the Wall Street Crash occurred in October
1929, which forced the USA to recall their loans, plunging Germany into
financial turmoil (because they had been too reliant on the USA financially),
leading to extremism in Germany and the appointment of Hitler as chancellor.
· Nevertheless, the Dawes and Young Plans were
important U.S. efforts that had lasting consequences. Coming so soon after the
American rejection of the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations, the
Dawes and Young Plans were significant instances of U.S. reengagement with
European affairs. The Young Plan also had a more lasting effect: the Bank for
International Settlements, or BIS, continues to operate to this day as a forum
for central bank consultation and cooperation.
London Naval
Conference, 1930
· Aimed towards taking further steps in
naval disarmament, including submarines and smaller warships that were not
covered in the 1921 Washington Conference. Basically extended reviewed the
treaties of the Washington Conference
· Between USA, Britain, Japan, Italy and
France
· Continued the moratorium on building
capital ships (‘building holiday’) for five more years
· April 22nd – USA,
Britain and Japan signed treaty moving the naval ratio from 5:5:3 to 10:10:7
(10:10:6 for heavy cruisers) – France and Italy excluded themselves from the
ratio – France didn’t want to accept parity with Italy – she felt like her
defense requirements in the North Sea, Atlantic and Mediterranean meant that she
needed sufficiently more naval forces than Italy, who was only a Mediterranean
power.
· Because of the depression it wasn’t
problematic to enforce – countries didn’t have the money to keep on building
ships, but wanted to secure peace and no naval race.
· Made progress with regards to peace and
disarmament.
· Met again in 1935 – Japan walked out
because they were denied the parity with the USA and Britain that they insisted
upon. USA, Britain and France did agree to a 6-year moratorium on
building light large cruisers.
The Manchurian Crisis, 1931-1933
· September 1905 – the Treaty of
Portsmouth granted Japan control of the South Manchurian Railway in China
· September 17th 1931 – Mukden
Incident: Japan occupied Manchurian towns, claiming that China had sabotaged
their part of the South Manchurian Railway (historians suspect that the
Japanese Kwantung Army did it themselves)
· By February 1932, the Japanese had set
up a puppet state of Manchukuo – they had complete control over Manchuria and
the Manchurian people. The Chinese government did not put up much resistance,
because their main priority was defeating Mao’s communists – preoccupation of
this crisis meant that the LON was their only help. They did, however, appeal
to the LON (of which Japan was a member of the council), who ordered the Lytton
Commission to investigate the incident – it took them a year to report back
that Japan were the aggressor (they did not respond quickly or effectively
enough – the situation in the area was already quite complex – Japan had a
significant presence in Manchuria after the 1905 Russo Japanese War, and
China’s control in Manchuria was limited since a revolution against the Emperor
in 1911)
· By February 1932, the Lytton Commission
reported back that Japan had been the aggressor, and that they should leave the
area, and that the state of Manchukuo should not be recognized by other
nations. Japan used their VETO powers to block the league’s resolution,
withdrew from the LON and went on to continue invading Manchuria and went on to
bomb Shanghai. Further Japanese atrocities showed complete disregard for China
(e.g. the Rape of Nanking)
· The LON had failed – Britain and the
USA were more concerned with their own economies after the depression, and
Japan was a vital trading partner so they didn’t want to be too harsh on them –
they also had no military force so could only condemn Japan, which didn’t work.
The LON were completely powerless, and Eurocentric. They were also scared of
Japanese aggression.
· Tony Howarth: “the LON was powerless in
the face of a determined aggressor”
· Start of appeasement, although this
type of crisis was exactly what the LON was there for – to prevent. Decision
was too late, by the time a decision had been made the troops were already
mobilized and stable. Collective security in the Far East was dead. Some
historians (Samuel Bernis) argue that the crisis was a direct cause of WW2.
Disarmament Conference (Geneva
Conference), 1932-1933
· After the effects of the Manchurian
crisis had put countries more on the defensive than ever
· 60 nations were represented, including
he USA, USSR and Germany. Germany (under rule of Hitler) demanded equality of
armaments, and the French refused to consider reducing their armaments until
security was assured.
· Set up by the LON, wanted to create a
military balance between France and Germany – wanted to disarm to the lowest
level – German Government (pre-Hitler) wanted France (600,000) to disarm to
Germany’s 100,000, or Germany should be able to rearm. Neither scenario was
acceptable to France, because French politicians were aware of Germany’s larger
population and industrial capacity. Ramsay MacDonald proposed that all armies
should be reduced to 500,000 men, and that France and Germany should have
parity.
· Second meeting in Feb 1933 – USA
persuaded the four leading European powers to sign an agreement promising “not
in any circumstances to attempt to resolve any present or future differences
between them by retort to force”.
· Another meeting in June – Britain,
France, Italy and USA agreed to sign a four year moratorium on armaments, at
the end of which Germany would be allowed equality of armaments – this was not
good enough for Germany who demanded parity immediately, so they walked out of
the conference
· Problems: The depression reduced the
optimistic atmosphere that had been present in the other conferences, Nations
were fearful for their own security after the Manchurian Crisis so were not
willing to disarm, there was no enforcement or power to observe compliance, all
nations would only reduce their weapons if they felt safe enough to do so –
when others reduced theirs, there was a lack of co-operation due to other
things going on. Disarmament Conference was killed by the German walk out,
which was followed by Germany leaving the LON – France was determined to
maintain its forces higher than Germany’s. Hitler felt free to rearm openly,
which he proceeded to do – conscription was reintroduced in 1935, and he
announced that he would build up a peacetime army of 550,000 men.
· Instead of continuing disarmament, it
marked the end of disarmament – however, this time Germany were not appeased.
The Abyssinian Crisis, 1935-36
· LON acted more quickly when Mussolini’s
Italian army invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) after a humiliating defeat in the
Battle of Adowa in which they lost 6000 men to a backward, technologically
inferior army. Mussolini saw himself as a modern day Julius Caesar, and wanted
to re-boost Italy’s image like he had done during the 1923 Corfu Incident.
· August 16th 1928 – two
countries signed the Italo-Ethiopian friendship agreement. Already on 1906
B&F had agreed that Ethiopia should be under a minor sphere of Italian
influence.
· In 1934, there was a
Somalian/Abyssinian border clash at the Wal-Wal Oasis, which was 150km inside
Abyssinia. 30 Italian soldiers died, Mussolini demanded the Oasis as
compensation– the Abyssinian Emperor Haile Selassie appealed to the LON and
Mussolini went on to invade Abyssinia. The LON sent out a commission and
declared that Italy had broken Article 12 of the LON Covenant by “retorting to
war within three months of a dispute being referred for arbitration”. Italy was
declared the aggressor and the assembly voted to impose sanctions on Italy –the
LON banned weapons sales and put sanctions on rubber and metal, as well as
prohibiting the import of Italian goods and financial support to Italy.
· The LON didn’t, however, ban steel and
oil selling because they were scared of what Mussolini would do.
· This was, however, the harshest action
that the LON had taken out upon an aggressor – they had learnt something from
the Manchurian incident.
· Mussolini did not like the sanctions
and was becoming closer to Hitler, who “watched”. Mussolini left the LON in
1937.
· The Suez Canal, vital for trading, was
kept open – Britain and France could have closed it but didn’t want to, because
they feared losing him as an ally to Hitler. Sanctions also placed on
Abyssinia, who were innocent – this meant that they couldn’t obtain weapons to
fight the Italian army.
· European powers were more concerned
with Hitler’s troops in the Rhineland than the incident in Abyssinia –
Eurocentric, selfish.
· Marked Chamberlain’s abandonment of
collective security and the beginning of appeasement.
· AJP Taylor – “The LON died in 1935… it was
a useless fraud…Hitler watched”
· JR Western – “The crisis was fatal to
the LON, nobody took it seriously again”
· AP Adamthwaite – “Abyssinian Crisis
delivered the death blow to the LON… while Britain and France were distracted
Hitler was sending 22,000 men into the Rhineland”
The Hoare-Laval Pact, 8th
December 1935
· Secret agreement between Samuel Hoare
(British Foreign Sec) and French Premier Pierre Laval, in an attempt to solve
the Abyssinian Crisis
· Proposed to offer Mussolini 60% of
Abyssinia – gave two large areas to Italy and left a ‘camel corridor’ in the
middle for Abyssinia. This was done without the consultation of Haile Selassie,
the Abyssinian Emperor. In return, Italy would have to stop the war. Some parts
would be under Italian control, and some under Italian economic influence.
· The details were leaked, causing public
furor.
· Mussolini went on to completely invade
Abyssinia, which shattered the hopes and confidence in the LON acting against
aggression. The fact that two major LON members were prepared to negotiate with
the aggressor was also shocking – B&F didn’t want to get on Mussolini’s
bad side.
· Gave Mussolini the impression that
Britain and France would not try to stop him if they were offering him Land –
AJP Taylor blames this for the reason that the LON was a “sham” and a “failure”
– the start of appeasement
· Counter Argument: The pact offered to
keep 40% of Abyssinia – without it, Mussolini would have taken 100%, which was
what he did. Proposed to give Selassie a part of British Somaliland which would
have given Abyssinia access to the sea – trade, imports.
· Italy approached Germany and signed the
Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936 – this was what the allies didn’t want, and why the
Hoare-Laval Pact was made: as a desperate measure to keep Mussolini apart from
Hitler. It failed.
