From the May 2010 IBDP History Paper 2 exam
The First World War, a catastrophic global conflict which began in 1914, is often examined through the lens of Germany's actions. Yet, it is crucial to shift our focus to understand the roles of other states. The complex web of alliances, political rivalries, and economic competition among European nations created a fertile ground for conflict. For this analysis, we will examine two such states: Austria-Hungary and Russia. Both had substantial roles in instigating the Great War, driven by their respective national interests, geopolitical ambitions and historic animosities. Austria-Hungary’s reaction to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand propelled Europe toward war, while Russia’s defensive stance towards Serbia and ambition for pan-Slavism further ignited the conflict.
Austro-Hungary was a unique entity, a dual monarchy that combined different ethnicities under one rule. The empire had been losing its grip on its domains, contributing to tensions that would lead to the outbreak of war. In 1908, it annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, a decision that not only increased ethnic and nationalistic tensions but also angered Serbia and Russia. Serbia had long harboured ambitions for these territories, viewing them as part of a greater Slavic union, while Russia saw itself as the protector of Slavic peoples. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb, on June 28, 1914, was the catalyst that Austria-Hungary utilised to affirm its dominance. This event, according to Ferguson, was an "opportunity for Austria-Hungary to reassert its waning power". The empire's response was a calculated ultimatum to Serbia, the July Ultimatum, demanding an end to anti-Austrian propaganda, participation in Serbia's internal investigation, and other conditions that directly violated Serbian sovereignty. This aggressive stance was backed by Germany’s ‘blank cheque’ support. But it was more than just a reaction to the assassination. Austria-Hungary wanted to curb Serbia’s increasing influence and the rising tide of pan-Slavism, which directly threatened the integrity of its empire. McMeekin argues that Austria-Hungary’s decision to go to war was driven by a "desperate desire for self-preservation". The ultimatum was, therefore, designed to be unacceptable, thus providing a pretext for war with Serbia. This act ignited the chain of events leading to World War I, as alliances activated in the wake of Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. As the Austrian historian Geiss points out, "Austria-Hungary's decision to risk a war rather than to tolerate further the status quo was crucial in turning a Balkan conflict into a European, and eventually a world war". Thus, Austria-Hungary's pivotal role in the outbreak of the war is undeniable. The empire’s geopolitical ambitions, concerns for national security, and desire to reassert control over its restless ethnic groups played a crucial part in its aggressive response to Serbia, which directly led to the beginning of World War I.
Despite Austria-Hungary's desire for war with Serbia, the conflict could have remained a regional dispute had it not been for the complicated system of alliances that existed during this era. Even then, Austria-Hungary's role in sparking a broader conflict should not be understated. While Germany may have provided the blank cheque, it was Austria-Hungary that cashed it in, turning a local conflict into a continental one. Historically, Austria-Hungary's relationships with its neighbours were fraught with tensions due to its varied ethnic makeup and regional influence. Serbia, emboldened by its recent victories in the Balkan Wars and its desire to unite the South Slavic people, was increasingly seen as a threat to the stability of Austria-Hungary's southern border. This growing Serbian nationalism and the perception of a threat were essential elements that drove Austria-Hungary's ultimatum and subsequent declaration of war on Serbia. However, Austria-Hungary’s actions were not without miscalculations. According to Clark, Austria-Hungary was “dancing on a volcano,” underestimating the potential ripple effects of their aggression. The empire failed to anticipate the scale of the conflict, believing that Germany's support would deter Russia from intervening. However, they drastically misjudged Russia's willingness to support its fellow Slavic nation, which contributed to the conflict's escalation from a regional dispute to a full-blown global war. In the larger picture, Austria-Hungary was a failing empire grappling with nationalism and internal dissent. Its aggressive posture towards Serbia was a desperate attempt to reassert control and maintain its dwindling authority. This desperate action, backed by a miscalculation of international reactions, paved the way for a larger conflict. In this context, Austria-Hungary played a central role in the outbreak of World War I, even if it was not the only one responsible. To conclude, Austria-Hungary’s role in the outbreak of World War I is multifaceted. The assassination of the Archduke provided the immediate cause, and the subsequent aggressive actions taken by Austria-Hungary towards Serbia directly resulted in the start of the war. Its decision to deliver an intentionally unacceptable ultimatum was both an act of reasserting power and an underestimation of the larger political landscape of Europe. With the backing of Germany, Austria-Hungary transformed a regional conflict into a global one, igniting the powder keg that was Europe in 1914. Therefore, the actions and motivations of Austria-Hungary were key components leading to the outbreak of the First World War.
In contrast to Austro-Hungary's position of trying to maintain an empire, Russia found itself on the cusp of establishing itself as a defender of Slavic people and seeking to exert its influence in the Balkans. Russia's role in the outbreak of the First World War is intrinsically tied to its relationship with Serbia and its ambition for pan-Slavism. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand also served as a pivotal moment for Russia, sparking a chain of events that led the country down the path of war. Viewing Austria-Hungary's ultimatum to Serbia as a threat to Slavic solidarity and its own influence in the Balkans, Russia felt compelled to intervene. McMeekin asserts that Russia "was unwilling to stand by and watch Serbia be crushed". Its decision to mobilise against Austria-Hungary was not just about protecting Serbia, but also asserting its status as a dominant power in Eastern Europe. Russia's policy of pan-Slavism, the idea of a political and cultural union of Slavic people under Russian leadership, further spurred its actions. According to Figes, "Russian foreign policy was driven by an ideological desire to support the Slavic peoples against the Teutonic (Germanic) threat". The policy became a cornerstone of Russian identity and diplomacy at the time, tying Russia's national interests with the fate of Slavic nations such as Serbia. This ideological commitment, coupled with strategic interests in the Balkans, led Russia to enter into a conflict that would soon engulf all of Europe.
But beyond ideological and diplomatic considerations, there was another element at play: Russia's long-standing rivalry with Austria-Hungary and Germany. Russia had lost a war against a combined German and Austro-Hungarian force in the late 19th century, which had significantly weakened its position in Europe. The prospect of a war with Austria-Hungary over Serbia offered a chance for Russia to reclaim its status as a significant European power. Moreover, there was also an element of misjudgment similar to that of Austria-Hungary. Russia assumed that its mobilisation would be seen merely as a defensive measure, intended to deter Austria-Hungary from declaring war on Serbia. However, Germany viewed Russian mobilisation as an act of aggression, ultimately leading to Germany declaring war on Russia. The role of the Russian military in influencing Russia's decision-making process also merits attention. Lieven argues that the "Russian military was pushing for war, believing in their ability to win". This overconfidence, coupled with the desire to restore national pride and secure Russia's position in Europe, further pushed Russia towards war. Furthermore, the insidious support of France was another factor that emboldened Russia. The Franco-Russian alliance, strengthened by their mutual distrust of Germany, offered Russia a strategic advantage. Russia could count on French support if a war broke out, making its decision to support Serbia and escalate tensions with Austria-Hungary easier. In essence, Russia's decision to enter the war was shaped by a complex interplay of ideology, national interest, and strategic calculation. Its commitment to pan-Slavism, strategic interests in the Balkans, rivalry with Austria-Hungary and Germany, and the backing of France all combined to push Russia into the First World War. Therefore, Russia's role in the outbreak of the war was not merely reactive but driven by both its international and domestic ambitions. In conclusion, Russia played a substantial part in the outbreak of the First World War due to its commitment to pan-Slavism, its strategic interests in the Balkans, and its geopolitical rivalries. It viewed the conflict between Austria-Hungary and Serbia as an opportunity to assert its influence and restore its international stature. Its decision to mobilise against Austria-Hungary, despite knowing the potential consequences, helped transform a regional dispute into a global conflict. Therefore, it is essential to consider Russia's actions and motivations when discussing the origins of the First World War.
In the complex mosaic of events leading to the outbreak of the First World War, the roles of Austria-Hungary and Russia emerge as critically important. Both states, in their unique ways, fuelled the escalation of a localised Balkan dispute into a broader conflict that enveloped the entire continent and beyond. Austria-Hungary, grappling with internal instability and the increasing threat of Serbian nationalism, viewed the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand as an opportunity to reassert its influence. Its aggressive actions, most notably the delivery of the intentionally unacceptable ultimatum to Serbia, effectively sparked the conflict. This desperate attempt to maintain the integrity of a fragile empire was a significant factor in the eruption of the war. Conversely, Russia, driven by the ideology of pan-Slavism, strategic ambitions in the Balkans, and the desire to reassert its status as a major power, mobilised in defence of Serbia. Its decision to intervene was influenced by a range of factors, including domestic pressures, international alliances, and long-standing rivalries. Despite the high stakes, Russia willingly stepped into the conflict, thereby contributing to the escalation that led to the First World War. Therefore, while Germany often dominates discussions of World War I's origins, it is important not to understate the parts played by Austria-Hungary and Russia. Both had substantial roles in instigating the Great War, driven by their respective national interests, geopolitical ambitions, and historic animosities. This broader perspective allows us to appreciate the complex and multifaceted nature of the causes of the First World War.
