From the November 2018 IBDP History Paper 2 exam
The Great Man theory, posited by Thomas Carlyle in the 19th century, places individuals at the centre of historical narrative and progress. While criticised by some, its influence is undeniable in shaping perspectives on historical events. It becomes particularly pertinent when evaluating democratic emergence in nation-states, where leadership can significantly shape political trajectories. The "Great Man" theory posits that extraordinary individuals shape the course of history through their personal attributes and actions. To evaluate the importance of "Great Men" in the emergence of two democratic states between 1848 and 2000, this essay will focus on the roles of Otto von Bismarck in the formation of the German Empire and Abraham Lincoln. These figures were pivotal in shaping their nations' political landscapes, while also representing broader historical forces at play.
Abraham Lincoln (1809-1865) is a paragon of the 'Great Man' concept in the context of the United States. His presidency during the tumultuous Civil War years (1861-1865) represented a turning point in the consolidation of American democracy. Lincoln's rise from a humble background, coupled with his unwavering commitment to the principles of democracy and the Union, attest to his extraordinary qualities. A defining moment of Lincoln’s presidency, the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, underscores his transformative impact. This historic decree announced "that all persons held as slaves" within the Confederacy "are, and henceforward shall be free". Although it could be interpreted as a strategic measure to destabilise the Confederate economy, it also manifested Lincoln's genuine conviction in universal equality, an indispensable tenet of democracy. This belief was eloquently articulated in Lincoln's Gettysburg Address in November 1863, where he envisaged a “new birth of freedom”. Donald highlights that Lincoln's unique blend of moral resolve, political acumen, and personal integrity were instrumental in guiding the United States through its darkest hour. Lincoln’s capacity to galvanise the discordant Northern states into a unified force is a testament to his leadership mettle. His pragmatism, openness to diverse viewpoints, and ability to make difficult decisions were traits that marked him as an effective leader amidst national crisis. Lincoln's unwavering belief in the ideals of liberty and equality deeply imprinted these values on the American consciousness, contributing significantly to the democratic ethos of the nation.
In the aftermath of Lincoln's assassination, his vision of a democratic United States was further realised with the passing of the Thirteenth Amendment (1865), which officially outlawed slavery, and the Fourteenth Amendment (1868), granting citizenship and equal protection under the law to all individuals born or naturalized in the United States. Both of these amendments marked significant strides towards realising Lincoln’s democratic ideals, contributing substantially to the formation of a democratic state in the United States. The historical consensus, as asserted by McPherson, is that Lincoln's vision and determination were pivotal in steering the United States towards democracy during the Civil War. His emphasis on union and liberty became foundational principles that continued to shape American politics and society in the centuries that followed. Lincoln's belief in a government “of the people, by the people, for the people”, a phrase immortalised in the Gettysburg Address, encapsulates the democratic ideal that still resonates in the United States today. Indeed, Lincoln's transformative role in the United States' transition to democracy cannot be overemphasised. His ability to navigate through one of the nation's most challenging periods and guide it towards the path of democracy is a testament to his 'Great Man' status. His vision of a democratic nation, one in which all men are created equal, ultimately became a reality, owing in large part to his steadfast leadership and moral fortitude.
Moreover, Bismarck's policy of 'Realpolitik' - politics based on practical considerations rather than ideological principles - introduced a pragmatic approach to politics in Germany. Bismarck believed in the use of power to achieve his objectives, rather than relying on ideals or principles. While this can be seen as a rejection of democratic ideals, it also represented a realistic understanding of political power, which is not entirely incompatible with democratic governance. Indeed, democracy is often about compromise, negotiation and the pragmatic balancing of different interests. Although Bismarck was dismissed in 1890 by Wilhelm II, his influence continued to permeate German political culture. The social welfare reforms he introduced helped to moderate class conflicts and reduce social inequality, providing the groundwork for the development of a more democratic society. His pragmatic approach to politics may have even facilitated Germany's transition to democracy in the 20th century by instilling a political culture of pragmatism and compromise. However, the legacy of Bismarck's rule was not entirely positive for Germany's democratic development. As Kitchen points out, Bismarck's authoritarian rule and the suppression of political dissent under the Anti-Socialist Laws of 1878-1890 contributed to a political culture that was not conducive to democratic values. His aggressive foreign policy also fostered militaristic tendencies that would later prove disastrous for Germany and Europe as a whole. Nevertheless, the mixed legacy of Bismarck's rule cannot negate the significant role he played in the political evolution of Germany. In conclusion, while Bismarck may not have consciously aimed to promote democratic principles during his reign, his policies and strategies had significant implications for the political trajectory of Germany. His efforts in nation-building, social reforms, and the pragmatic approach in politics played a key role in the evolution of Germany's political culture, thus laying the groundwork for its eventual transition to democracy.
The 'Great Man' theory, although somewhat simplified, offers valuable insights when analysing the contributions of key figures like Abraham Lincoln and Otto von Bismarck in the emergence of democratic states. Each, in his own way, left an indelible mark on their respective nations. Lincoln, through his steadfast commitment to principles of equality and freedom, guided the United States through one of its darkest periods and left a legacy that continues to shape American democracy today. Bismarck, though not an ardent democrat, played a crucial role in unifying Germany and introducing social policies that indirectly fostered democratic principles. However, whilst it is crucial to acknowledge the agency of these 'Great Men', it is equally important not to underestimate the broader societal, cultural, and economic forces at play. Their actions and policies were, after all, shaped and constrained by the contexts in which they operated. Their legacies are not monolithic - they are subject to interpretation and debate, and their impacts on the democratic development of their respective nations are multifaceted and complex. In conclusion, while the 'Great Men' can certainly exert substantial influence over the course of history, their contributions must be understood within a broader socio-political context. The 'Great Man' theory, despite its limitations, provides a useful heuristic for understanding the role of individual agency in history, demonstrating that individuals, like Lincoln and Bismarck, can indeed shape the trajectory of nations and leave a lasting imprint on the democratic ethos of their societies.
