From the May 1999 IBDP History paper 2 exam
The theatre of warfare underwent a dramatic transformation in the 20th century, influenced by a myriad of social, political, technological, and ideological factors. As military strategies evolved to adapt to new realities, tactics, the practical means to achieve strategic objectives, underwent substantial changes. This essay analyses the evolution of warfare tactics in the 20th century, focusing on two central themes: the shift from attrition to manoeuvre warfare and the growing importance of air power.
A crucial shift in military tactics during the 20th century was the move from attrition to manoeuvre warfare. Attrition warfare, characterised by direct, frontal assaults and the grinding down of an enemy's resources, was prevalent in the early part of the century, most notably during World War I. This tactic, as Keegan noted, resulted in a stalemate on the Western Front, with both sides dug into extensive trench systems, leading to massive casualties but minimal strategic gains. However, the interwar years saw military thinkers such as Heinz Guderian in Germany and Mikhail Tukhachevsky in the Soviet Union advocating for a different approach. They proposed manoeuvre warfare, which emphasised mobility, speed, and surprise to bypass enemy defences and disrupt their command structures.
World War II witnessed the application of manoeuvre warfare tactics, particularly in the form of Germany's Blitzkrieg. As Guderian outlined, Blitzkrieg hinged on the use of concentrated armoured forces, supported by airpower, to penetrate enemy lines, followed by motorised infantry to exploit the breach and encircle enemy forces. This tactic was demonstrated in the German invasions of Poland and France, which achieved rapid victories. The shift to manoeuvre warfare was not without its complications. As Murray indicates, it required significant changes in military organisation, doctrine, and equipment. Nonetheless, by the end of the 20th century, manoeuvre warfare had become the predominant tactical doctrine in most advanced militaries, as exemplified by the Anglo-American-led coalition's ground campaign in the 1991 Gulf War. The shift from attrition to manoeuvre warfare was driven by technological advancements, such as the development of tanks and motorised infantry, and the lessons learned from the bloody stalemate of World War I. This tactical evolution demonstrated an increased emphasis on achieving strategic objectives with minimal casualties.
Another major transformation in 20th century warfare was the growing importance of air power. At the outset of the 20th century, aircraft had negligible military value, but by the century's close, air power had become a crucial component of military strategy. The significance of air power was initially recognised in the Great War. While aircraft were primarily used for reconnaissance, towards the end of the war, strategic bombing campaigns were conducted against enemy cities and industrial centres, as Harris notes. However, the technology and tactics were in their infancy, and their impact was relatively limited. The interwar period saw a debate about the potential of air power. Figures such as Giulio Douhet in Italy and Billy Mitchell in the US argued that air power could be a decisive factor in future conflicts. They advocated for strategic bombing campaigns to destroy an enemy's will and capacity to fight.
World War II confirmed the strategic significance of air power. The extensive bombing campaigns conducted by both sides, from the Blitz to the Allied bombing of Germany and Japan, demonstrated the destructive potential of air power. Although the effectiveness of strategic bombing in achieving its goals remains debated, as Overy suggests, there is little doubt that it played a central role in the conflict. Post-World War II, air power has remained a critical aspect of military operations. Technological advancements, particularly in precision-guided munitions and stealth technology, have further enhanced the capability of air power. Modern conflicts, such as the 1991 Gulf War and the 1999 Kosovo War, were dominated by air campaigns, demonstrating the continued relevance of air power. The rise of air power was driven by technological innovations and the desire to strike at an enemy's heartland, bypassing the need for costly and time-consuming ground operations. The increased reliance on air power in the 20th century marked a significant tactical evolution in warfare.
In examining these transformations in warfare tactics, several factors emerge as pivotal. Technological advancements, including the development of tanks, motorised infantry, and aircraft, were instrumental in driving these changes. Such advancements facilitated manoeuvrability on the battlefield and the ability to strike at the enemy from the air. Moreover, the desire to avoid the massive casualties associated with attrition warfare, particularly in the aftermath of World War I, incentivised the shift towards manoeuvre warfare. Similarly, the development of air power reflected a strategy to bypass the enemy's frontline defences and target their industrial and civilian centres, in an attempt to undermine their capacity and will to fight. Finally, the influence of military thinkers, such as Guderian, Tukhachevsky, Douhet, and Mitchell, cannot be overlooked. Their theories and doctrines shaped the tactical discourse and guided the application of new technologies and strategies.
The 20th century was a period of remarkable change in the realm of warfare tactics. The shift from attrition to manoeuvre warfare and the growing importance of air power were two of the most significant transformations. Driven by technological advancements, the lessons of previous conflicts, and strategic innovations, these changes exemplified the evolving nature of warfare. While it is beyond the scope of this essay to provide a comprehensive account of all tactical changes in 20th century warfare, these two themes offer a window into the complexity and dynamism of military tactics during this period. Understanding these changes is crucial for appreciating the historical context of contemporary warfare and offers invaluable insights for future tactical considerations.
