IBDP Extended Essay in History
The Alteration of the Interpretation of Archaeological evidence to support Myths
Why and how far was Yigael Yadin's archaeological interpretation altered to fit the mythic narrative of Masada?
Word Count: 3994
Introduction:
Masada, “fortress” in Hebrew, is an ancient fortification on a desolate desert hill overlooking the dead sea in Israel. The fortress was built in 37 BCE by King Herod who feared a popular revolt against him. Later, during the Jewish rebellion against the Romans in 73 C.E., Masada was the refuge of 960 Sicarii Jewish zealots. According to Roman-Jewish historian Josephus Flavius the site was later besieged by the Romans, leading to a mass suicide in which all men killed their families and themselves. As per the story, this spelled the conclusion of the first Jewish revolt. Despite Josephus writing the only account of the suicide and his controversial nature as a source this has been the generally accepted story. Israeli general, politician and archaeologist Yigal Yadin was tasked with excavating Masada in 1963, arriving at the site with nothing but Josephus’s book.
While tragic at its core, this event was interpreted as one of heroism at the beginning of the Zionist movement, as the Sicarii chose to die on their own terms rather than surrender and fall into Roman captivity, portraying both strength and resilience. Masada signifies that Jews historically lived and fought for Israeli sovereignty, therefore deserving to live on the land. This interpretation has however been called into question in recent years due to Masada’s controversial nature, scholars such as Nachman ben Yehuada and Yael Zerubavel have been questioning how a site of defeat and mass suicide had become the symbol for the modern state of Israel. The rise of terrorism in Israel has somewhat changed the perception of Masada today within the general Israeli populous, as immortalizing death for a cause is no longer appealing to Israeli people.
Ben Yehuda argues that Yadin interpreted the archeological evidence in order to fit Josephus’s narrative. He claims that despite the evidence not being concrete, Yadin remained firm in his agreement with Josephus, arguing that this was due to his personal bias .Yadin was a Zionist patriot and recognized that the Israeli people looked up to the myth of Masada as a symbol of hope and legitimization of their sovereignty.
Yadins interpretation of the archeology reinforced and legitimized the myth of Masada, despite the evidence not necessarily pointing towards it, which begs the question, “Why and how far was archeology altered to fit the mythic narrative of Masada?”. This issue is particularly interesting and significant to historians, as it allows for an understanding of how science can be altered in order to fit history, and history can be altered to fit what society needs it to be. Furthermore, this essay explores how history is determined, as well as who determines history and the different factors which influence this process. In essence, this essay will be a source analysis of Yigal Yadin as well as a perception of how the mythic narrative of Masada and his inherent bias influenced his archeological findings. This is an important topic for research, as it questions the methods of differentiating myths from history, studying how the lines between the two are often undefined.
Yadin was one of the foremost archeologists of his time, however he excavated Masada trying to find evidence of a Mass suicide. Josephus’s myth of Masada has come into question as of late, with contemporary scholars and historians questioning whether the suicide at Masada was simply used as a literary device or display of Roman power. It is likely that Josephus described the end of the siege of Masada to make the story more gripping, as mass suicides were a motif in his stories. He accounted a mass suicide which he led and survived in Yodfat, as well as another one in Gamla. Could it be that the Jewish defenders were so resilient that they often chose to commit suicide rather than fall into Roman hands? Yes. However, it is also probable that Josephus played up Jewish resilience in order to both improve his book as well as play up Jewish resilience and in turn Roman strength. It is common practice for ancient historians to not accurately describe events in order to dramatise them, therefore making it very likely that Josephus did the same. The validity of Josephus’s account and therefore the legitimacy of the conclusions Yadin drew from his excavation will be explored by considering the three different aspects of his excavation, the Artifacts, man-made structures and the Eco-facts. Yadin determined that all three pointed towards Josephus’s myth being true, however only two of them convincingly portray Josephus’s story.
Artifacts:
Yadin was the foremost Israeli archeologist at that time, with many of his findings, such as his discoveries in the Bar Kochba caves, leading to breakthroughs in the study of ancient Jewish history. A crucial aspect of any excavation is the artefacts which are discovered. This is because artefacts are usually best preserved, as well as them often containing writing which allows for the possibility of etymology to discover their origin. During his excavation of Masada, Yadin found numerous meaningful artifacts including scrolls, papyri, coins and ostraca, all of which were determined to be evidence of Josephus’s account on Masada. While recognizing that these did not prove Josephus’s myth, Yadin decided that they suggested its validity. This is most likely due to the degree of accuracy with which Josephus described these Artifacts and the time period from which they are, which was discovered through both scientific as well as etymological means.
At first, the evidence clearly points towards Josephus’s story being true. The discovery of coins from that time period points towards there most definitely being people living in Masada at that point in time. The Shekels had the year of the revolt inscribed on them, year one, two, three, four and five, proving that the coins arrived in Masada in or after 73 C.E., as the revolt only lasted 5 years and ended in Masada. At the site, it is claimed that the coins belonged to Sicarii and were gathered by Romans collecting “booty” (Appendix A). The coins were discovered in the “Casemate of the Scrolls” the southernmost point on the plateau (Appendix B) where the romans supposedly stored them the after the “fall of Masada” (Appendix A). This is reinforced by these coins being discovered such a large distance from the living quarters and among a variety of artifacts. Furthermore, the soldiers were most likely in a hurry. They did not wish to remain in these harsh conditions, and the generals will have wanted to return to Rome due to the rise of the Flavian dynasty and conclusion of the revolt. This provides a reason as to why the coins were forgotten rather than looted. While this interpretation is convincing, there are many other conclusions which can be drawn as to the origin of these coins. They could have been put there by Sicariis attempting to hide their belongings from the Romans, or they could simply have been the belongings of the Romans who inhabited the fortress after the war and looted these coins at some other time during the revolt. No matter who these coins belonged to, they strongly suggest the presence of one, or both of the parties present during the fall of Masada. Therefore, the coins point towards the myth of Masada being accurate and increase Josephus’s validity as a source.
Yadins discovery of Jewish scrolls from before 73 C.E. suggests that Zealots had lived there at the time. Many different torn up scrolls were discovered together with the coins in the “Casemate of the Scrolls” (Appendix C). Yadin discovered scrolls from many different sects, determining that one of them belonged to the Essene, Jews that lived on the western shore of the dead sea, but were up until then not considered to have taken part in the revolt against the romans. Yadin concluded that the Essene people took part in the revolt as Josephus, a general in the war, explained that one of the men leading the Jewish armies in the center of Israel was an Essene man. He therefore decided that it was unlikely that only one Essene took part in the revolt. This is an example of Yadin utilizing Josephus, who is an extremely controversial source, as evidence to reinforce his version of the myth of Masada. Josephus was a general in the army however, which is why it would make sense to trust him in this case, as there would be no motive for him to lie about the people taking part in the revolt, other than to potentially exaggerate how widespread it was. The archeology convincingly suggests the presence of Zealots atop Masada during 73 C.E., “The year Masada fell”.
The excavation also points towards there being a Roman garrison at Masada, though it is unclear when it took control of Masada. The discovery of an intentionally torn up Jewish scroll was interpreted by Yadin as a reinforcement of Josephus Flavius, as Yadin assumed the Romans had torn the Jewish scrolls apart. Josephus claimed that this was a common Roman way of persecuting Jews, and therefore Yadin concluded that Romans were there at the time. Roman Papyri were also discovered in that room, dating back to approximately the time at which the siege would have ended, which confirms that there was most definitely a garrison as well as Jewish rebels there at that point in time, further legitimizing Josephus Flavius as a source but not confirming a suicide.
There are far more examples of circumstantial evidence pointing towards the mass suicide. One of the most potent finds pointing towards a mass suicide are 11 of the 250 Ostraca which were found on the site. These 250 Ostraca included tags for food and distribution of roles for people occupying the site. Yadin discovered eleven Ostraca which had a slightly different color and shape to the others at one of Masada’s most strategic locations. He concluded that these Ostraca belonged to the final generals of the rebels as the names inscribed on the Ostraca included Yoav, a rare name at the time and one which only the bravest of soldiers received, and Ben Yair, the man who led the revolt. Furthermore, all of the Ostraca were engraved by the same hand. However, Josephus claims that “Finally, then, the nine bared their throats, and the last solitary survi- vor, after surveying the prostrate multitude, … and findng that all were slain, … and then collecting his strength drove his sword clean through his body and fell beside his family.” conveying that not eleven, but ten lots were drawn. Yadin counters this by claiming that one of the eleven was never completed and that Elezear Ben Yair’s ostraca was never mentioned by Josephus, as it was obvious that he would be one of the final defenders. This shows that Yadin chose to ignore Josephus and disregard his story in order to support the mythic narrative of Masada using archeology. Given the proof, it also makes sense that these Ostraca were simply tags for food or water, making the relevance of the ostraca an open question, one which archeology cannot solve. Yadin concluded that this was his most important find, admitting that he will never know the real origin of the Ostraca, but believes that they were the lots used to determine which of the last defenders of Masada would kill the others.
The majority of the Artifacts discovered legitimize and reinforce Josephus Flavius as a reliable source. However, the only artifacts which even remotely point towards a mass suicide are the Ostraca and they do so unconvincingly. Yet Yadin chooses to strengthen the mythic narrative of Masada. The reason for this is most likely not due to any inherent bias, but simply due to the fact that the majority of the information presented by Josephus proved to be accurate and that the artifacts pointed towards there being a Roman garrison as well as Jewish rebels present at Masada. However, despite establishing Josephus’s reliability Yadin chose to question it when deciding that the twelve Ostraca belonged to the last survivors. This is most likely because he had to reinforce the symbol of Masada, choosing to interpret the Ostraca in a way which would reinforce the suicide rather than Josephus’s account of the suicide. Yadin was under immense pressure to reinforce the suicide at Masada as he could not throw the symbol of Masada into question. It is the only ancient Jewish symbol which remains standing and therefore Yadin, a patriotic, Zionist Israeli had to reinforce the myth in order to legitimize the state of Israel. My father and grandfather both had inauguration ceremonies to the military on top of Masada proclaiming, “Masada shall never fall again”, highlighting its significance to Israeli society.
Man-made Structures and evidence of a Siege:
Throughout Yadins excavation, as well as before the excavation, many man-made, as well as geographical structures were discovered, the majority of which were accurately detailed by Josephus. The man-made structures such as the siege ramp path, the catapult or ballista balls and the siege camps verified that there was a siege at Masada at some point in ancient history.
These siege camps are probably why Masada was so easily identifiable to the first explorers who discovered the site. Yadin confirms that these camps were Roman, but it is unclear whether they were built during that time period. It is argued that the Romans completed a practice siege at Masada and that therefore there was never a real siege of Masada, however this is unlikely due to the isolation of the site. Yadin chose to trust Josephus due to him being his only source and trustworthy for the majority of the excavation. Therefore, he symbolically considers the siege camp, comparing it to the excavation camp.
“The sight of the adjoining camps, Silva’s and our own, was not without its symbolism, and it expressed far more pungently than scores of statements something of the miracle of Israel’s renewed sovereignty. Here, cheek by jowl with the ruins of the camp belonging to the destroyers of Masada, a new camp had been established by the revivers of Masada.”
This highlights Yadins innate bias which arises due to his immense nationalism. He determines that he and his team are the revivers of Masada, therefore suggesting that he excavated the site in order to reinforce the myth. Yadin considered Masada to be a symbol, rather than a site, which is made clear by this quote. This inherent preconception of Masada stems from him growing up in the Mandate of Palestine, being a traditional Zionist Jew fighting in the underground de facto military “Haganah” which later became the Israeli Defense Force. For Yadin Masada was not simply a period in ancient antiquity or a geographical site. It was a symbol of heroism and authentic national spirit, which particularly captivated him as he felt as though he was the natural successor to the ‘heroes’ of Masada. This can be seen in this quote, as he makes it clear that Masada is a symbol rather than an archeological site. Yadin saw it as symbolic that Masada had disappeared from collective memory during Jewish life in exile yet had returned with their return to Israel. This interpretation of the myth resonated heavily with Yadin as can be seen by the fact that he became the IDF’s chief of staff, highlighting his patriotism.
Another visible example confirming a siege taking place at the site is the path built for the siege ramp.
Josephus claims that this ramp was built in order to allow the Romans to assault Masada, as they were aware of the fact that the Sicarii had enough resources to survive for months. The Romans were unwilling to remain in these conditions for so many months and were eager to end this revolt. The romans would have been unable to climb the snake path, as they would have been picked off by the Sicarii’s on their way up and would have had to go up in a single file line. Furthermore, it would have been impossible to take the fortress without a siege tower and it would have been impossible to roll a siege tower up any other part of the mountain. Josephus explains that the romans built this ramp by adding stone layers to the natural rock formation, and that this was something Romans often did. Although it seems as though it could simply be a natural rock formation, it is clear to see that gravel was put onto the mountain itself in order to build the siege ramp, as the rocks which are on that road are very different to those in the surrounding area.
The presence of large ballista balls atop of Masada proves that a ballista was used at the site. The large ballista balls could only have reached that point through use of a ballista, as there would be no reason or way for anyone to bring these large rocks on to the plateau. It was determined in the final report that ballistae were used, as they were commonly utilized during the days of the First Jewish revolt.
Additionally, Josephus accurately details the layout of the fortress as well as the individual structures. The fact that all of these archeological finds have been accurately detailed by Josephus makes him a reliable source, which suggest a reason as to why Yadin chose to justify the myth of Masada using his archeological discoveries.
Eco-facts:
Although Yadin provided a sufficient justification as to why the majority of the discoveries considered up to this point convincingly reinforce Josephus’s myth of Masada, the organic remains discovered in and around the fortress do nothing of the sorts. The first example of this is the three skeletons Yadin discovered in the debris of the fortress. He immediately determined that these were the skeletons of the defenders of Masada, claiming that all archeologists were in “awe” and they felt as though they were reliving the final moments of the first Jewish revolt. The team and him claimed that the three consisted of a family, concluding that the man was a soldier due to the armor which was discovered by his side. This is most likely due to the archeological team only having Josephus as a source, therefore heavily relying on him. This interpretation of the bones has now been called into question, as the woman was far too young to have birthed the child. Furthermore, the origin of the bones is unknown, as they most likely would have been brought there by hyenas from one of the surrounding caves. There is no way the Romans would have left human remains of the Zealots on the fortress, as they were aware of the threat of illnesses spreading, therefore, if the remains were to belong to Sicarii, there would have been no way the Romans established a garrison on Masada after its fall. The garrison has been proven by a variety of artifacts; therefore, it is highly likely that these remains were not originally from the plateau.
Yadin discovered more skeletons in the caves surrounding Masada. He discovered 25 different remains, which he identified to belong to Jewish rebels despite the presence of pig bones in the cave, which could not have been kept with Jewish people, especially sicarii who were incredibly religious. He concluded that the romans dumped the bodies of the defenders of Masada in these caves in order to not have them on the plateau while they inhabit it. This makes very little sense. Firstly, the Romans would have filled this cave up with more than 25 bodies. Secondly, the Romans will have most likely burned the corpses, as this would have been the most efficient way to get rid of them. The Romans did not care for Jews and wanted to get out of the harsh desert conditions as quickly as possible. The Romans wore Lorica Segmentatas at the time, which would have been almost impossible to wear under these conditions. Having worn a reenacted one in 23C weather while carrying siege weapons (appendix D), one can already feel the heat to a large degree and can only imagine wearing it in 40C. While historical reenactment is not the most reliable of sources, it is beneficial in order to understand the exhaustion the Romans must have felt when besieging the site. The return to a stable Rome after the year of the four emperors four years would also have been on their mind. Thirdly, the Romans would not have left any symbols remaining, they were aware of the threat martyrs pose to their rule, just as the Allies were aware of this when destroying the Nazi temple of honor. This can be seen by the fact that the Romans chose to destroy the Second temple. This would lead to the question of why Masada was left intact, with the likely reason being that Masada was a useful fortress for the Romans.
Despite Yadins insistence that the remains belonged discovered to Zealots who had committed suicide, the presence of these skeletons suggests there not even being a suicide at Masada. The Eco-facts do not point towards a mass suicide in any way, however Yadin chose to use them in order to reinforce the myth of the Mass suicide of Masada.
Conclusion:
Yadin altered his interpretation of his archeological findings to a large extent in order to reinforce the myth of Masada. He did this for a variety of reasons including his personal bias, the immense societal pressure placed upon him and the fact that Josephus was the only source he had with him.
Foremost biblical archeologist Jodi Magness states that whether there was a Mass suicide atop the plateau is “not a question archaeology is equipped to answer” suggesting that Yadins reinforcement of the mass suicide is an alteration of his archeological discoveries. It is clear that Yadin altered his interpretation of Masada to a large extent, coming to a conclusion supporting Josephus’s myth of the suicide based on the archeology. Despite his interpretation of the artifacts and man-made structures being largely convincing, his interpretation of the eco-facts as well as ostraca discovered exposes his goal to prove the existence of a mass suicide. The organic remains do not point towards a Mass suicide in any way and while the majority of the evidence legitimizes Josephus as a source, there is no evidence which supports the suicide. Josephus was established as a reliable source throughout the excavation; however, the suicide could have been used as a literary tool.
It is clear to see why Yadin chose to support the mythic narrative, as the only reason he was excavating Masada was in light of Josephus’s story. He claimed that the people excavating the site asked themselves “Had the Zealots hidden their writings before committing suicide?” proving that he and his team arrived at Masada assuming that Josephus’s myth to be accurate. The main reason for this is that they arrived at Masada with one thing, Josephus’s book. Therefore, it is especially striking that Yadin chose to disregard Josephus’s book when discovering the Ostraca. This probably occurred as Yadin recognized the importance of the suicide at Masada for Israel. He understood that throwing the narrative which had been created of the Mass suicide into question would in no way benefit the country. The myth was imperative to Israel at the time. It is clear that Yadin faced intense social and political pressure to discover something spectacular in Masada, as this was meant to be the symbol of modern Israel after the Eichmann trial and wars of survival in the late 40s and early 50s. Furthermore, all of his books are about Jewish history. With Masada being one of the most important sites in Jewish history, his excavation would heavily impact his legacy. His book became the “crowning” of his scholarly career, a bestseller.
In conclusion, Yadin altered his interpretation of the archeological findings of Masada significantly. He did so consciously due to the reliability of Josephus as a source but also subconsciously due to his own personal bias as well as his understanding of the importance of reinforcing the symbol of Masada to the country of Israel.
Works cited
• Ben Yehuda, Nachman. “Sacrificing Truth: Archaeology and the Myth of Masada.” Sacrificing Truth: Archaeology and The Myth of Masada | Bible Interp, 2002, bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/2002/ben268001. Accessed 10 April 2022
• Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. “The Masada Myth | Bible Interp.” Bible Interpretation, 2000, https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/2000/ben248001. Accessed 21 September 2022.
• Brighton, Mark Andrew. “"The Irony of Masada" | Bible Interp.” Bible Interpretation, August 2009, https://bibleinterp.arizona.edu/articles/2009/08/bri338001. Accessed 21 September 2022.
• Linde, Steve. “The Symbol of Masada.” The Jerusalem Post, 14 Dec. 2019, www.jpost.com/israel-news/the-symbol-of-masada-610479.
• Magness, Jodi. “‘Masada Shall Not Fall Again’: YIGAEL YADIN, THE MASS SUICIDE, AND THE MASADA MYTH.” Masada: From Jewish Revolt to Modern Myth, Princeton University Press, 2019, pp. 187-201. Accessed 1 Oct. 2022.
• Nelsson, Richard. “Masada and the Birth of a Nation | Israel.” The Guardian, 11 February 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/from-the-archive-blog/2014/feb/11/masada-observer-exhibition-archaeology. Accessed 10 September 2022.
• The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Flavius Josephus Penguin, 1959.
• Yadin, Yigael. “Masada and Its Scrolls.” Commentary Magazine, Oct. 1966, https://www.commentary.org/articles/yigael-yadin/masada-and-its-scrolls/.
• Yadin, Yigael. Masada. Random House, 1966.
• Zerubavel, Yael. “The Death of Memory and the Memory of Death: Masada and the Holocaust as Historical Metaphors.” Representations, no. 45, 1994, pp. 75. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/2928603. Accessed 1 Sep. 2022
• Roth, Jonathan P. THE LOGISTICS OF THE ROMAN ARMY AT WAR (264 B.C. - A.D. 235). Leiden. Boston. Köln, Brill, 1999. Accessed 11 May 2022.
• Magness, Jodi, and Guy D. Stiebel. Masada VIII: The Yigael Yadin Excavations 1963-1965 - Final Reports. The Military Equipment from Masada. Edited by Gideon Foerster, et al., Jerusalem, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, 2007. Accessed 25 August 2022.
Extra = 506+265+35 = 806
Appendices:
Appendix A: 
Appendix B:
Appendix C: 
Appendix D:
With student re-enacting and testing via experimental archaeology
History IBDP Internal Assessment
May 2023
Was there a Mass Suicide in Masada?
Word Count: 2198
Section A: Identification and Evaluation of Sources Was there a Mass Suicide in Masada?
This study investigates whether there “was a mass suicide on Masada?” on the 15th of April 73 A.D. To investigate and uncover what ended the siege of Masada, the only historical account of the suicide, Josephus Flavius’s the Jewish War will be evaluated. Furthermore, Yigal Yadin’s Preliminary Report of the excavation of Masada in 1963/64 will be evaluated, as it is the main archaeological excavation in support of the mass suicide.
The Jewish War: Josephus – Translated by G.A. Williamson
Josephus’s work is inherently valuable as the only historical account of the mass suicide – its dating, its location, the numbers involved and the context of the siege, making it the very basis of this investigation. As a Jewish general and later Roman advisor Josephus took a prominent part in the war, allowing him access to key leaders said to be responsible for Masada and insight on the details.1 It is hard to imagine Josephus fabricating the mass suicide, as any number of the thousands of eyewitnesses would have read the book.2 However, as with many ancient historians, he invented speeches, such as Ben Yair’s which served as a catalyst to the suicide.3 Josephus in general sought to ingratiate himself with the new Flavian dynasty as a policy of survival, implying that the mass suicide on Masada could have been created to show Roman might.4 Given such a possible purposes for writing such an account, the translator prefaces the book by warning that that from one who boasted of his achievements in deceit “we should hardly expect a high standard of objectivity”5 suggesting that Josephus’ account of the suicide on Masada must be read sceptically.
1 “Introduction” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 8.
2 Ibid p. 9.
3 Josephus went back to Rome with Titus in 71 A.D. “The Temple burnt and Jerusalem taken.” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, p. 327.
4 “Introduction” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 11.
5 ibid p. 14.
3
The excavation of Masada-1963/65: Preliminary Report: Yigal Yadin (1964)
The origin is again invaluable as it is the primary report on an archaeological project by its leader, possibly the foremost Israeli archaeologist.6 The content of the report, providing archeological evidence such as ostraca, skeletons and coins from the time, is considered crucial in reinforcing Josephus’s account. The whole purpose of the excavation was to reinforce, and much of what Yadin discovered supported Josephus’ narrative, 7 making his book on Masada the “crowning” of his archeological career.8 However, it was written an entire year before the excavation even ended, implying it was rushed and its purpose was to promote the information found, leading to a question of whether the discoveries were archeological finds or propaganda pieces. Yadin himself was an Israeli general who sought to reinforce Josephus’ tale of Masada to elicit sentiments of unity and determination in members of the newly created state of Israel by emphasizing the strength of the Jewish people throughout history.9
410 words
Section B: Investigation “Was there a mass suicide on Masada?”
Josephus claims that on April 15th 73 A.D., 960 of the 967 Sicarii rebels led by the charismatic Elezear ben Ya’ir killed themselves and their families, rather than being captured by the Romans besieging them at Masada.10 They were outnumbered 5 to 1, making it a hopeless situation. Over the years it has become an Israeli monument, a symbol of “Jewish heroism”.11 Indeed, the soldiers in my family pledged allegiance to the Israeli flag at the site. However, Josephus’ trustworthiness has been called into question by contemporary historians such as G.A. Williamson who suggests he used Masada as a way of displaying Jewish resilience and in order to ingratiate himself with the Romans.12 In 1965, those questions seemed to be laid to rest by Yadin, when through his archaeological findings, he determined there was clear evidence supporting the account. Nevertheless, questions remain as to whether or not Yadin was looking for what he wanted to find, or if the evidence supported Josephus’ account. To evaluate the accuracy of Josephus’ story this investigation will consider the findings of Yadin, to recognize that the questions about the accuracy of his claims are valid and that there therefore is no evidence of a suicide on Masada.
6 Magness, Jodi. “‘Masada Shall Not Fall Again’: YIGAEL YADIN, THE MASS SUICIDE, AND THE MASADA MYTH.” Masada: From Jewish Revolt to Modern Myth, Princeton University Press, 2019, pp. 187.
7 ibid., pp. 182
8 Ibid, pp. 189.
9 ibid, pp. 197.
10 “Cleaning-Up Operations.” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 366.
11 Palotai, Klara. “Masada – the Changing Meaning of a Historical Site/Archeological Site in the Reflection of a Nation’s Changing History.” Department of Archeology, New York University, https://web.archive.org/web/20151222092406/http://artscapeweb.com/masada.html.
12 “Introduction” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 11.
4
First however, Josephus’ account must be evaluated in order to understand whether he fabricated the myth, fashioning a story with the information available to him or gave an accurate account of the end of the siege. 13 He claims Ben Yair, whom Josephus characterized as a charismatic, convincing speaker, convinced his followers to commit collective suicide through a speech. Yair’s speech came after the Romans had breached the wall, but it is incomprehensible that they would turn around and head back to their camp. 14 Therefore, Josephus may have used the mass suicide as a literary tool to lay the blame of the entire revolt on the sicarii, as Yair confesses that he and his followers, whom had provoked the war, had erred and were now being punished by God.15 Ben Yair being so convincing highlights the persuasive nature of the sicarii movement and the fact that all the men killed themselves may allude to the sicarii dragging the entire Jewish race into the war. 16 This suggests that Josephus used the speech and suicide as a literary tool, showing the readers that the way of the sicarii is the way of death, in order to remove the blame of the war from the Jews, exonerating the Romans, and lay it on a band of zealots.
However, Yadin's sensational discovery of eleven identical ostraca in 1964, seemingly lays the matter of the mass suicide to rest, as these eleven were supposedly used to determine the final survivors.17,18 Josephus claims that the Sicarii burned their valuables, then killed their families, having the commanders kill the other men, before drawing lots to determine who would kill the remaining nine men and then himself.19 The discovery is incredible, the ostraca were apparently used to draw lots in order to determine the final man on Masada. Two of the eleven were inscribed with “ben Ya’ir” and “Yoav” (appendix A) reinforcing them being the lots, as these names belonged to two of the commanders.20 This indicates that these ostraca were made for Yair’s commanders, with Yadin therefore interpreting them to be the lots used by the final survivors. However, Josephus explicitly states only ten men were selected, highlighting a flaw in the archeological evidence presented by Yadin.21, 22 We do not know for certain what the use of these ostraca was, as ostraca were used for any number of things, including rations. Furthermore, the lottery to decide on who would kill themselves last is a recurring motif in Josephus’s account, with him being the last survivor in a similar lottery in Jotapata.23 It is highly unlikely the two suicides were conducted using the same method, suggesting Josephus fabricated the story of the lots. It is probable that Josephus chose to implement parts of his own story due to insufficient information. The discovery of eleven, rather than ten identical ostraca and the prior mention of a mass suicide using the same process make the ostraca unconvincing evidence for the mass suicide.
13 Introduction” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 10
14 Cohen, Shay. “Masada: Literary Tradition, Archaeological Remains, and the Credibility of Josephus.” pp. 396 15 “Cleaning-Up Operations.” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 359.
16 Martin Hengel: The zealots: Investigation into the Jewish freedom movement from Herod I to AD 70. Tübingen, 2011. pp. 398
17 Ostraca are pieces of pottery
18Yadin, Yigael. “Masada and Its Scrolls.” Commentary Magazine, Oct. 1966, https://www.commentary.org/articles/yigael-yadin/masada-and-its-scrolls/. Paragraph 5
19 “Cleaning-Up Operations.” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 366.
20 Yadin, Yigael. “Masada and Its Scrolls.” Commentary Magazine, Oct. 1966, https://www.commentary.org/articles/yigael-yadin/masada-and-its-scrolls/. Paragraph 6
21 Cleaning-Up Operations.” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 366.
22 Yadin, Yigael. “Masada and Its Scrolls.” Commentary Magazine, Oct. 1966, https://www.commentary.org/articles/yigael-yadin/masada-and-its-scrolls/. Paragraph 42
23 Cohen, Shay. “Masada: Literary Tradition, Archaeological Remains, and the Credibility of Josephus.” pp. 398
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Visiting the site, one understands why there is an issue with Josephus’ account. It’s clear that the northern palace is far too small for an assembly of almost 1000 people. (appendix C) Josephus claims the Romans built the siege ramp to the west of Masada, with various archaeologists agreeing this ramp was used to assault Masada. 24 However, Josephus’ representation is misleading, when viewing it in person, one notices that the ramp is mostly a natural rock formation as it is still mostly intact and far too large for the Romans 23-meter- tall siege tower. (appendix D, E, F and G) Furthermore, the Romans would not have had the time, or ability to construct a ramp of that size in the brutal heat of Masada while wearing the incredibly heavy Lorica Segmentata. (appendix G) This suggests a plot from Josephus to accentuate Roman ingenuity, proposing the exaggeration of Jewish resilience through the suicide in order to highlight Roman might. Afterall, accentuating both Roman brilliance and sicarii toughness would show the heroism of the Jews, which in turn highlights the glory of winning the war, which the Flavians turned into the centerpiece of their dynasty.25
The most common argument against the suicide is that a mere 28 remains were discovered and given a state funeral in Jerusalem26, far fewer than the 960 people who took part in the supposed suicide. The discovery of these remains was sensational, with Yadin claiming that all archeologists working at the site were in awe when discovering the largely intact skeletons.27 The skeletons were almost 2000 years old, yet there was still blood identified near them and hair on the woman’s head. The woman was discovered alongside two skeletons buried under debris, and they were interpreted to be a Jewish family due to the non-Roman armor and commonly worn Jewish sandals from the time as well as prayer scripts.28 Yadin found another 25 skeletons in a cave under Masada, including six Roman soldiers who died during the siege, identified by an anthropologist to be Roman due to their distinct bone structure which resembled that of remains of other Roman soldiers.29, 30 According to Yadin, the other nineteen were sicarii31, including women and children, suggesting they committed suicide, as the
24 Jodi Magness, Yigael Yadin, Shay Cohen. Cohen,
Shay. “Masada: Literary Tradition, Archaeological Remains, and the Credibility of Josephus.” pp. 393, YADIN, Y. “The Excavation of Masada—1963/64: Preliminary Report.” Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 15, no. 1/2, 1965, pp. 112.
Magness, Jodi. “‘Masada Shall Not Fall Again’: YIGAEL YADIN, THE MASS SUICIDE, AND THE MASADA MYTH.” Masada: From Jewish Revolt to Modern Myth, Princeton University Press, 2019, pp. 187.
25 Magness, Jodi. “‘Masada Shall Not Fall Again’: YIGAEL YADIN, THE MASS SUICIDE, AND THE MASADA MYTH.” Masada: From Jewish Revolt to Modern Myth, Princeton University Press, 2019, pp. 158.
26 Zeitlin, Solomon. “Remains of 27 Masada Defenders Will Be Buried on Mount of Olives in Jerusalem.” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 20 Mar. 2015
27 YADIN, Y. “The Excavation of Masada—1963/64: Preliminary Report.” Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 15, no. 1/2, 1965, pp. 90.
28 Yadin, Yigael. “Masada and Its Scrolls.” Commentary Magazine, Oct. 1966, https://www.commentary.org/articles/yigael-yadin/masada-and-its-scrolls/. Paragraph 49
29 Sloane, Elizabeth. “Did the Jews kill themselves at Masada rather than fall into Roman hands?” Haaretz, 16 May 2017, https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2017-05-16/ty-article-magazine/is-the-masada-tradition- true/0000017f-e1c2-df7c-a5ff-e3fa96150000. Accessed 20 May 2022.
30 Campbell, J. B. The Roman Army, 31 BC-AD 337: A Sourcebook. Routledge, 2015. P. 136
31 Yadin, Yigael. “Masada and Its Scrolls.” Commentary Magazine, Oct. 1966, https://www.commentary.org/articles/yigael-yadin/masada-and-its-scrolls/. Paragraph 49
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Romans would have sought to keep them alive as slaves.32 Josephus claims that the sicarii cremated themselves by setting fire to the northern palace, which is reinforced by the burn marks on the palace and suggests a reason as to why so few bodies were discovered (appendix B). However, there are numerous problems with the few bodies discovered, for one, we cannot be sure whether they were sicarii or Roman, as to his credit, Yadin himself objected to the state funeral the “heroes” received due to uncertainty over their origin.33 While it is clear that they were Jewish, the arrowheads near the man’s body and his armor points towards him having died fighting the Romans. This in turn weakens the narrative of the sicarii killing themselves, as it is more likely that this group of zealots were murdered after the Romans breached the walls. As for the skeletons discovered in the caves, they were discovered with pig bones which were dated from the same time as the other skeletons through carbon-dating, meaning it would have been impossible for these to belong to Jews as they would not have had pigs near them.34 This in turn suggests that these skeletons belonged to another group living in the area at the time.35 Finally, Josephus’ claim that the bodies were cremated is impossible as bones never truly disintegrate, therefore begging the question of where the remaining remains are? Yadin suggests they were buried in an undiscovered mass grace. All in all, the lack of skeletons and the remains discovered not painting a convincing image of the suicide highlights that there is insufficient evidence to conclude a mass suicide occurred on Masada.
This investigation demonstrates that the archeological evidence cannot prove the mass suicide. It highlights that the mass suicide was most likely fabricated by Josephus to accentuate the might of the Romans, while the discoveries at the site do not prove a suicide, instead painting an image of a chaotic end to the siege. In conclusion, while there was undoubtedly a siege at Masada, Yadins evidence does not point towards there being a mass suicide.
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Section C: Reflection
The main challenge of this investigation was evaluating the reliability of Josephus. As with many ancient historians, it's exceptionally difficult to separate truth from fiction, given their purpose in writing history is different from our adherence to facts. This issue manifested itself particularly in the mass suicide, where factual information is synthesized with fictional speeches and details, which was accepted in the ancient world. To navigate this dilemma required other fields, as Yadin showed with his use of archeology. Whilst ancient history lacking archeological confirmation should be viewed skeptically, this investigation still shows the danger of confirmation bias.
32 Roth, Jonathan P..THE LOGISTICS OF THE ROMAN ARMY AT WAR (264 B.C. - A.D. 235). Leiden. Boston. Köln, Brill, 1999, pp. 112.
33 Clein, Eric H. “Decoding the Ancient Tale of Mass Suicide in the Judaean Desert: Aeon Essays.” Aeon, Aeon Magazine, 3 Aug. 2020, https://aeon.co/essays/decoding-the-ancient-tale-of-mass-suicide-in-the-judaean-desert.
34 Ibid.
35 “Cleaning-Up Operations.” The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959, pp. 351.
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Throughout I questioned Yadin’s possible bias through his lens of a greater national myth he was invested in emotionally and professionally, ending up questioning my own bias in choosing the topic itself- do historians unwittingly play up key events that exaggerate their importance to the detriment of other events, a question increasingly asked through the lens of gender and race today? Who decides not only what to study, but its importance? I saw this too by visiting the site, impressed by the scale of the buildings, distance of the camp and role of the environment and by those who made the ‘pilgrimage’, praying at the site. Our emotional investment may influence our sober judgement and overplay the significance of key events. Equally, our interpretation of events changes. The Masada of Yadin wasn't that which the Israeli government wants to promote, shown when they advised Trump not to visit when he came. Our interpretation changes alongside our society and is never fixed.
Conversely, it's striking in Germany there are Römertage, focused on recreating and applying Roman weapons/armour. Wearing the lorica segmentata evidence suggests the Romans wore at Masada, I examined their siege weapons and consulted with experts (appendix G), granting me almost as much insight into the siege as the site itself, particularly regarding the usage of siege tower. This investigation ignored reputable historians 36 who argued that the idea of a siege tower could not have worked, yet after asking experts who actually used and visiting the site itself, I understood applying a siege tower to Masada was clearly doable. This suggests a role for experimental archaeology which increasingly adds to our understanding of the ancient world when before armchair historians would never have held a gladius or tested what they described.
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Word Count: 2198
36 GIAMBRONE, Anthony, editor. Rethinking the Jewish War: Archeology, Society, Traditions. Peeters Publishers, 2021. JSTOR, https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv1q26qtm.
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Bibliography:
Ben-Yehuda, Nachman. Masada Myth: Collective Memory and Mythmaking in Israel. Illustrated, University of Wisconsin Press, 1995.
Campbell, J. B. The Roman Army, 31 BC-AD 337: A Sourcebook. Routledge, 2015.
Clein, Eric H. “Decoding the Ancient Tale of Mass Suicide in the Judaean Desert: Aeon Essays.” Aeon, Aeon Magazine, 3 Aug. 2020, https://aeon.co/essays/decoding-the-ancient- tale-of-mass-suicide-in-the-judaean-desert.
Cohen, Shay. “Masada: Literary Tradition, Archaeological Remains, and the Credibility of Josephus.”
GIAMBRONE, Anthony, editor. Rethinking the Jewish War: Archeology, Society, Traditions. Peeters Publishers
Magness, Jodi. “‘Masada Shall Not Fall Again’: YIGAEL YADIN, THE MASS SUICIDE, AND THE MASADA MYTH.” Masada: From Jewish Revolt to Modern Myth, Princeton University Press, 2019
Martin Hengel: The zealots: Investigation into the Jewish freedom movement from Herod I to AD 70. Tübingen, 2011. pp. 398
Moore, Jack. “Trump Cancels Masada Trip over Helicopter Landing.” Newsweek, Newsweek, 25 May 2017, https://www.newsweek.com/trump-cancels-visit-ancient-masada-site-after- israel-blocks-helicopter-landing-611287.
Preskar, Peter. “The Roman Siege of Jerusalem .” Medium, Short History, 19 Feb. 2023, https://short-history.com/siege-of-jerusalem-760eed9dab70.
Roth, Jonathan P..THE LOGISTICS OF THE ROMAN ARMY AT WAR (264 B.C. - A.D. 235). Leiden. Boston. Köln, Brill, 1999.
Sloane, Elizabeth. “Did the Jews kill themselves at Masada rather than fall into Roman hands?” Haaretz, 16 May 2017, https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2017-05-16/ty-article- magazine/is-the-masada-tradition-true/0000017f-e1c2-df7c-a5ff-e3fa96150000. Accessed 20 May 2022.
The Jewish War, by G. A. Williamson, Penguin, 1959
The Roman World 44 BC-AD 180, by Martin Goodman, Taylor and Francis, 2013
Yadin, Yigael. “Masada and Its Scrolls.”Commentary Magazine, Oct. 1966, https://www.commentary.org/articles/yigael-yadin/masada-and-its-scrolls/
YADIN, Y. “The Excavation of Masada—1963/64: Preliminary Report.” Israel Exploration Journal, vol. 15, no. 1/2, 1965, pp. 1–120.
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Zerubavel, Yael. “The Death of Memory and the Memory of Death: Masada and the Holocaust as Historical Metaphors.” Representations, no. 45, 1994, pp. 72–100.
Zeitlin, Solomon. “The Sicarii and Masada.” The Jewish Quarterly Review, vol. 57, no. 4, 1967, pp. 251–270.
Zeitlin, Solomon. “Remains of 27 Masada Defenders Will Be Buried on Mount of Olives in Jerusalem.” Jewish Telegraphic Agency, 20 Mar. 2015, https://www.jta.org/archive/remains- of-27-masada-defenders-will-be-buried-on-mount-of-olives-in-jerusalem.
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Appendices:
Appendix A:
Ostraca with Ben Yair inscribed on it
Located in the Museum at Masada, photograph taken by candidate
Appendix B:
The Burned Northern Palace Wall (taken by candidate):
One can clearly see the burn marks on the palace walls, especially the beams
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Appendix C:
The northern palace with the candidate to scale (Taken by candidate):
One immediately notices that there is no way that almost 1000 people would be able to fit in this space. The photographer is standing at the edge of the plateau, meaning that 1000 people would need to fit into the area where the candidate is standing. It can be seen with the naked eye that it is impossible. It is doubtful that over 100 people could fit in this space
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Appendix D:
The siege ramp from Masada (the view of the final defenders) (taken by candidate):
The ramp the Romans used in order to assault Masada. Josephus claims it was built and engineered by the Romans, however the discoloration of the rocks as well as the sheer size of the ramp suggests the majority of the ramp is a natural rock formation
Appendix E:
The siege tower and ramp as described on Masada (Taken by Candidate on Masada):
A diagram displaying the breach of the walls of Masada with the siege tower. They cased the mountain using the siege ramp, which they had apparently built. This was a diagram at the site, made in order to improve the experience and show what the siege is assumed to have looked like. This was a sketch made by one of the archeologists working at the site.
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Appendix F:
The breaching point, where the Romans broke down the wall surrounding the fortress (taken by candidate):
Appendix H:
Although historical recreation is often frowned upon, it is an effective way to understand the perspectives of soldiers at the time. Wearing the armor in 25-degree weather, and being on Masada during spring, allowed me to understand that it would have been almost impossible to move, much less carry heavy loads of rocks to construct massive ramps. Simply operating crossbows such as these is very tiring and imagining the romans doing so in almost 40-degree weather is impossible. The drawing represents the Romans looting Jerusalem wearing the same armor as the candidate, Lorica Segmentata
(Preskar, Peter. “The Roman Siege of Jerusalem - the Utter Destruction.” Medium, Short History, 19 Feb. 2023, https://short-history.com/siege-of-jerusalem-760eed9dab70.)
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