IBDP History Internal Assessment
A: Plan of investigation
Which was a greater source for the Nigerian civil war (known as the Biafran war), amalgamation or tribalism? The conflict itself had always been blamed on the amalgamation of the country as citizens of the country have always complained that the British, knowing nothing of the cultural and ethnic groups, simply drew lines and borders, giving these regions names while expecting them to be a country. The civilians of "Niger area' as it was called complained that that was a big misunderstanding made by the British'. However, the purpose of this essay is to seek another possible reason for the Nigerian civil war other than the amalgamation, specifically tribalism. The sources that would be used is" The Making of a Nation-Biafra" by Arthur A. Nwankwo and Ifejika Samuel, with this I aim to point out that perhaps the British are not the only ones to blame for the conflict but also the inhabitants of the country played an important role in enhancing the hatred amongst one another. Another book that would be used is "The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War" by Alexander A. Madiebo to show that the British had a strong influence in the war. Internet sources will be used more frequently than books in this essay because there is a lack of sources concerning Africa here in China especially when it has to do with wars and the like.
B: Summary of Evidence
1. The creation of Nigeria.
Nigeria had been a British colony from 1914-1960'. British had come into Africa for trade but by 1960 it left the country under the administration of the indigenes. However, the carving up of the country though should have been a problem as stated by Nwafor Orizu, what really existed in the Western Sudanese parts were a multitude of already independent national states which were not only politically and territorially separate but also linguistically and culturally different. This fact did not seem to pose any threat to the British leaders who were supposed to create these boundaries and borders for countries. Instead they simply took pencils and started drawing lines on maps. Not only did they have no idea about the geography of the region' they also did not know of the political instability of the region. According to Orizu, there were tribes existing in the Nigeria that had already distinguished themselves and had become independent of one another. Though they had certain customs in common they were still politically disunited such as the Ibos and Yorubas. Even with the states of tribes there was still further division because although these tribes were under the same sovereignty they were still different and these were sectioned into kingdoms, such as the Onitsha kingdom, the Arochukwu kingdom and the Nnewi Kingdom, all under the Ibo tribe alone. Still the British ignored these differences and forced these separate tribes to live as a country. The British imposed a common nationality and government that the people would obey and give allegiance to. This government was the northern government with a party called the Nigerian Peoples Congress (NPC), the party won elections in 1959 and the Vice President Tafawa Balewa was appointed Nigeria's first prime minister by Sir James Robertson".
Although the British put an indigene as the leader forcing different communities already hindered chances of commonality between these people.Decolonisation and the drawing up of the borders. forming the countries occurred much too quickly and was done with little understanding of the tribes as a result extremely diverse groups today still co-habit as citizens. Cultural, economic and also enviromental realities were ignored and it created a barrier to growth of common identity. It was no wonder that only seven years afer the nation gained its independence it engaged in a civil war.
Tribalism is defined as loyalty to one's tribe as opposed to a modem political entity such as a state' and this is what the tribal groups in Nigeria displayed. Even with the unity they used to fight off colonial rule from 1950s, giving Britain the illusion that they were prepared for independence whereas they were still greatly separated. As mentioned, these tribes that formed the nation were greatly independent of each other and tribalism seemed inevitable. In fact, the political infrastructure of the country was formed by tribal groups. The first of these political groups became publicly known in 1951, they called themselves the Action Group, a Yoruba organisation that was discriminant to anyone that was not a full-fledged generation'. This was observed and adapted by parties that followed such as the NPC, by the Islamic and aristocratic Hausa-Fulani tribes in northern Nigeria and the NCNC formed by the Ibos of the eastern part of Nigeria. These were the tribalistic groups available to run of the country and each of these groups attacked one another through propaganda. The leader of the NCNC Dr. Micheal Okpara, insinuated that the AG were influenced by the western society knowing that the Nigerian people would not be satisfied knowing that they were still going to be influenced by outsiders therefore undermining the integrity of his opposition'. The NPC also had their own ideology, "one north, one people" neglecting everyone else". But soon the propaganda began to manifest from words to action. In the west, the local councils were instructed to impose curfews on their areas of jurisdiction and road clocks were mounted denying its opposition the right to hold campaigns in its territory. The northern part of Nigeria with most of the military strength used courts such as the dandukas and alkalis which were both under the northern political party to arrest and charge all opposition in the northern territory'. Political opponents often found their houses raided on a regular basis and themselves arrested and sent to prison without bail or permission to seek legal aid. Attorneys appointed to them themselves were usually arrested for concerning themselves with political rather than judicial affairs". Militarily, owning most of the military equipment and facility, the northerners had a great advantage over other parts of the country (see appendix 1). Consequentially, the military became a valuable tool". And usually, if a non-northerner was a commanding officer and punished or took any offensive action toward a northern soldier the consequences were usually high. This caused great discomfort in other parts of Nigeria and they became highly suspicious of activities in the north especially during elections, and their suspicions were realised when the northerners rigged the 1965 election which subsequently led to the easterners' coup in January 1966 which became known as the official struggle for power in Nigeria.
C: Evaluation of Sources
"The Nigerian revolution and the Biafran war" by Major-General Alexander A. Madiebo who is now a retired commander of the Biafran army and "The making of a nation-Biafra" by Arthur A. Nwankwo and Ifejika Samuel both deal with the war itself but each deals with specific issues more than the other.
Madiebo is concerned with the military background; he had been serving in the army for a long time and knew little about the political background of the country. As he was fighting on the side of the Biafrans he could be accused of bias, and his attitude toward the British could be hatred as the British were suspected of aiding the Nigerians with arms' (see figure 1).
Nwankwo also has his faults as he is considered a man with two faces, seeming compassionate to the Ibos after he had published his second work "The Igbo nation and the Nigerian state" and then seen playing with the enemies of the Ibo community which made him an untrustworthy source. However, the accounts he and his accomplist give in their book are vivid accounts of the situation at the time and this is also supported by the date as the book was published in 1969, during the war which also adds to their value as a source because they were in the middle of the fight and could see the changes in power taking place'.
But is also a reason why Madiebo should also be commended as he was leading the Biafran army and he was in contact with most the easterners that organised coups against the North such as Ojukwu the leader of Biafra. He was also one of the first to hear of the attacks from either side as it was his battalion that was supposed to be at the front lines".
-You must admit my sanctions against Unilateral Declarations of Independence are biting somewhere!"
First published in Daily Express on 19 June 1968 by Michael Cummings.
D: Analysis
The most direct cause of the Biafran war was the eastern declaration of secession from the country in May 1967. However, studies of the war usually consider the amalgamation of the country. as an important remote cause for the war. Though, consideration is given to the behaviour of the political leaders of the country, tribalism is often not a considered factor. But details in The Making of a Nation counter argue that tribalism played a major part in the breaking down of the country. Politically, northerners enjoyed most of the influence as they were left in control by the British and owned most of the military power which Madiebo claims was not just coincidence but planned by the British' and the north became quite reluctant to share this influence, once the easterners began to show interest in gaining power eastern traders in the north found themselves the victims of the action taken by their government. Many easterners were killed in the region which was one of the reasons why Col. Ojukwu leader of castem Nigeria wanted the secession, from fear of genocide. However, Madiebol points out that even though the British put these trbies together, somehow the unity of the tribes posed a threat to the interests of the colonial master, so to protect its economic interest the British introduced the 'divide and rule system" which laid emphasis on the differences among the people and so encouraged unhealthy rivalry between the citizens which resulted in politicians broadcasting that there were Nigerians who were more 'Nigerian' that other Nigerians. The British too made sure this continued to ensure perpetual exploitation of the country.
On the other hand, Nwankwo points out that these same people fought for independence together and joined hands to end colonial rule insisting that would make a difference because they would be governed by their own people, yet the country saw peace for only two years after independence. Events that followed seemed the apposite of what was forseen. Tribalism sipped into the political and militarial aspect of the country with political groups using propaganda as the only tool to gaining a lead in the elections. Especially in the case of the north, which had its opponents arrested, most of whom died in gaol either through sickness or starvation', this were bound to create serious factors affecting the country including the fact that after a long struggle the northerners still managed to rule the country. In support of this point, Nigeria was not the only former British colony to fall into war as soon as they gained independence, one of Nigeria's neighbours, Dahomey (now Benin) also suffered a bloody struggle for power, only to prove further that a fight for power was inevitable given the circumstances.
Madiebo, however, points out that the divide and rule system introduced by the British also afftected the country socially. As an example, in the north within cities and towns citizens often lived in areas distinguished from the non-northerners who were put in 'stranger quarters", making it easier to locate any stranger whenever needed. Indeed, it was easy to locate the non-northerns in the region when the Federal Military Government began mass killings of non-notherners".
E: Conclusion
The Biafran war was inevitable as it was expected that the leaders of the country would fight for power over a country as it is more respectable than being a leader of an unknown tribe. This power struggle goes on today in each election, although it is limited between politicians and does not end up in a bloody affair. Nevertheless, there is still rivalry between tribes since most. opponents are usually easterners against westerners and even now religion has been used in the north to justify murders of eastern traders in the north.
References:
Websites
1. Http:// opal.ukc.ac.uk/catalogue/search.pl last 2.http://magazine.biafrannigeriaworld.com/aehiri 3. people.uncw.edu/horanj/pls230/Nigeria.ppt last 4. scholars.nus.edu.sg/landow/post/Nigeria/biafra 5. www.globalsecurity.org/military/worldwar/bia
Articles
1. A Giant that has not yet found its feet by Salih www.africaaction.org/resources/doc/nig20033.ht 2. Allow the Nigerian people and not 'his Arewa" www.nigeriavillagesquarel.com, Articles/Omoruy 3. History of civil-military relations in Nigeria by viewed 22nd March 2005
4. Ojukwu's call from exile published in The Tim civil-war-ojukwu-call-from-exile.html last viewed
Books
1. Biafra- Britain's Shame, Auberon Waugh and 2. Nigeria Since Independence. The first 25 years 1989, Academic Literature, Heinemann.
3. Shadows: Airlift and Airwar in Biafra and Nige 4. The Heritage of World Civilizations combined Jersey, U.S.A.
5. The Making of a Nation- Biafra, Arthur Agwur London.
6. The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, publishing Co. Ltd.
References:
Websites
1. Http:// opal.ukc.ac.uk/catalogue/search.pl last viewed 17 March 2.http://magazine.biafrannigeriaworld.com/aehirim/2004feb01.html
last viewed 18th March
3. people.uncw.edu/horanj/pls230/Nigeria.ppt last viewed 24th January 2005
4. scholars.nus.edu.sg/landow/post/Nigeria/biafra.html last viewed 19 December 2005
5. www.globalsecurity.org/military/worldwar/biafra.htm last viewed 24" December 2005
Articles
1. A Giant that has not yet found its feet by Salih Booker and William at www.africaaction.org/resources/doc/nig20033.htm last viewed 26th March,2005
2. Allow the Nigerian people and not 'his Arewa' choose between Buhari and IBB by Omo Omoruyi www.nigeriavillagesquare1.com, Articles/Omoruyi.html last 22nd March 2005
3. History of civil-military relations in Nigeria by Nowa Omoigui www.dawodu.com/Omuigui4.htm last viewed 22nd March 2005
4. Ojukwu's call from exile published in The Times 16 January 1970. http://biafra.info/biafra/nigeria-biafra- civil-war-ojukwu-call-from-exile.html last viewed 29th March 2005.
Books
1. Biafra- Britain's Shame, Auberon Waugh and Suzanne Cronjé, 1969, London, Joseph, 1969
2. Nigeria Since Independence. The first 25 years Volume 6., Tekena N. Tamuno and Samson C. Ukpabi 1989, Academic Literature, Heinemann.
3. Shadows: Airlift and Airwar in Biafra and Nigeria 1967-1970, 1999, Howell Press Inc.
4. The Heritage of World Civilizations combined edition, Albert M. Craig, ibid, 2000, Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, U.S.A.
5. The Making of a Nation- Biafra, Arthur Agwuncha Nwankwo and Samuel Ifejika, 1969, C. Hurst and Co. London.
6. The Nigerian Revolution and the Biafran War, Alexander A. Madiebo, 1980, Fourth Dimension publishing Co. Ltd.
